Brucellosis Health Dictionary

Brucellosis: From 5 Different Sources


Undulant fever. An animal disease which may invade the human specie through contact with an infected animal (cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs or horses) or by consuming infected milk, cream or cheese. After drinking raw unpasteurised milk a hospital nurse suffered severe brucellosis; five patients quickly followed.

It is a disease of the slaughter house, veterinary surgeon, farm and meat trade worker. Young males are particularly at risk. In cows, infection may precipitate abortion of a calf but it does not affect the foetus in humans. May produce a rash on the arm of a vet handling a case.

Resembles glandular fever in the acute stage, with fever and high temperature, shivering, headache, profuse sweating, fatigue and anxiety-depression. Symptoms include enlargement of the spleen, liver, lymph glands, sore throat, possible rash, tremor and irritability. In long-standing cases a reactive arthritis may attack the joints. Often, it assumes an attack of influenza, its real nature remaining undiagnosed. Treatment. By medical practitioner. Herbal antibiotics may be regarded as a supportive role. Antibacterials: Garden Thyme, Garlic, Elecampane, Burdock root, Pulsatilla, Echinacea, Poke root, Myrrh, Goldenseal.

Tinctures. Formula. Blue Flag root 30ml; Poke root 15ml; Fringe Tree 30ml; Echinacea 60ml. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons in water every 2 hours (acute); 1 teaspoon thrice daily (chronic condition). 

Health Source: Bartrams Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine
Author: Health Encyclopedia
A rare bacterial infection, caused by various strains of BRUCELLA, which may be transmitted to humans from affected cattle, goats, and pigs. Brucellosis may also be transmitted in unpasteurized dairy products. Initially, it causes a single bout of high fever, aches, headache, backache, poor appetite, weakness, and depression. Rarely, untreated severe cases may lead to pneumonia or meningitis. In long-term brucellosis, bouts of the illness recur over months or years; and depression can be severe. The disease is treated by antibiotic drugs.
Health Source: BMA Medical Dictionary
Author: The British Medical Association
A zoonotic disease of humans contracted from goats, sheep, pigs or cattle. Can be caused by Brucella melitensis, B. abortus or B. suis Unpasteurised milk can be a source for human infection. Often presents as a PUO.
Health Source: Dictionary of Tropical Medicine
Author: Health Dictionary
Also known as undulant fever, or Malta fever.

Causes In Malta and the Mediterranean littoral, the causative organism is the bacterium Brucella melitensis which is conveyed in goat’s milk. In Great Britain, the US and South Africa, the causative organism is the Brucella abortus, which is conveyed in cow’s milk: this is the organism which is responsible for contagious abortion in cattle. In Great Britain brucellosis is largely an occupational disease and is now prescribed as an industrial disease (see OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES), and insured persons who contract the disease at work can claim industrial injuries bene?t. The incidence of brucellosis in the UK has fallen from more than 300 cases a year in 1970 to single ?gures.

Symptoms The characteristic features of the disease are undulating fever, drenching sweats, pains in the joints and back, and headache. The liver and spleen may be enlarged. The diagnosis is con?rmed by the ?nding of Br. abortus, or antibodies to it, in the blood. Recovery and convalescence tend to be slow.

Treatment The condition responds well to one of the tetracycline antibiotics, and also to gentamicin and co-trimoxazole, but relapse is common. In chronic cases a combination of streptomycin and one of the tetracyclines is often more e?ective.

Prevention It can be prevented by boiling or pasteurising all milk used for human consumption. In Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Canada the disease has disappeared following its eradication in animals. Brucellosis has been eradicated from farm animals in the United Kingdom.

Health Source: Medical Dictionary
Author: Health Dictionary
(Malta fever, Mediterranean fever, undulant fever) n. a chronic disease of farm animals caused by bacteria of the genus *Brucella, which can be transmitted to humans either by contact with an infected animal or by drinking nonpasteurized contaminated milk. Symptoms include headache, fever, aches and pains, sickness, loss of appetite, and weakness; occasionally a chronic form develops, with recurrent symptoms. Untreated the disease may last for years but prolonged administration of tetracycline antibiotics or streptomycin is effective.
Health Source: Oxford | Concise Colour Medical Dictionary
Author: Jonathan Law, Elizabeth Martin

Malta Fever

See BRUCELLOSIS.... malta fever

Undulant Fever

Another name for BRUCELLOSIS.... undulant fever

Mediterranean Fever

An intermittent fever related to brucellosis. Colchicum. (Martindale 27th Ed. p.370)

See: BRUCELLOSIS. ... mediterranean fever

Streptomycin

An antibiotic drug used to treat a number of uncommon infections, including tularaemia, plague, brucellosis, and glanders.

It may damage nerves in the inner ear, disturbing balance and causing dizziness, tinnitus, or deafness.

Other side effects are facial numbness, tingling in the hands, and headache.... streptomycin

Zoonosis

Any infectious or parasitic disease of animals that can be transmitted to humans. Unlike many disease organisms, zoonotic organisms are flexible and can adapt themselves to many different species.

Zoonoses are usually caught from animals closely associated with humans, either as pets, food sources, or scavenging parasites, such as rats. Examples include toxocariasis, cat-scratch fever, some fungal infections, psittacosis, brucellosis, trichinosis, and leptospirosis. Rabies can infect virtually any mammal, but dog bites are a common cause of human infection worldwide.

Other zoonoses are transmitted from animals less obviously associated with humans, usually by insect vectors. For example, yellow fever is transmitted by mosquito bites. (See also dogs, diseases from; cats, diseases from; rats, diseases from; insects and disease.)... zoonosis

Backache

Most people suffer from backache at times during their lives, much of which has no identi?able cause – non-speci?c back pain. This diagnosis is one of the biggest single causes of sickness absence in the UK’s working population. Certain occupations, such as those involving long periods of sedentary work, lifting, bending and awkward physical work, are especially likely to cause backache. Back pain is commonly the result of sporting activities.

Non-speci?c back pain is probably the result of mechanical disorders in the muscles, ligaments and joints of the back: torn muscles, sprained LIGAMENTS, and FIBROSITIS. These disorders are not always easy to diagnose, but mild muscular and ligamentous injuries are usually relieved with symptomatic treatment – warmth, gentle massage, analgesics, etc. Sometimes back pain is caused or worsened by muscle spasms, which may call for the use of antispasmodic drugs. STRESS and DEPRESSION (see MENTAL ILLNESS) can sometimes result in chronic backache and should be considered if no clear physical diagnosis can be made.

If back pain is severe and/or recurrent, possibly radiating around to the abdomen or down the back of a leg (sciatica – see below), or is accompanied by weakness or loss of feeling in the leg(s), it may be caused by a prolapsed intervertebral disc (slipped disc) pressing on a nerve. The patient needs prompt investigation, including MRI. Resting on a ?rm bed or board can relieve the symptoms, but the patient may need a surgical operation to remove the disc and relieve pressure on the affected nerve.

The nucleus pulposus – the soft centre of the intervertebral disc – is at risk of prolapse under the age of 40 through an acquired defect in the ?brous cartilage ring surrounding it. Over 40 this nucleus is ?rmer and ‘slipped disc’ is less likely to occur. Once prolapse has taken place, however, that segment of the back is never quite the same again, as OSTEOARTHRITIS develops in the adjacent facet joints. Sti?ness and pain may develop, sometimes many years later. There may be accompanying pain in the legs: SCIATICA is pain in the line of the sciatic nerve, while its rarer analogue at the front of the leg is cruralgia, following the femoral nerve. Leg pain of this sort may not be true nerve pain but referred from arthritis in the spinal facet joints. Only about 5 per cent of patients with back pain have true sciatica, and spinal surgery is most successful (about 85 per cent) in this group.

When the complaint is of pain alone, surgery is much less successful. Manipulation by physiotherapists, doctors, osteopaths or chiropractors can relieve symptoms; it is important ?rst to make sure that there is not a serious disorder such as a fracture or cancer.

Other local causes of back pain are osteoarthritis of the vertebral joints, ankylosing spondylitis (an in?ammatory condition which can severely deform the spine), cancer (usually secondary cancer deposits spreading from a primary tumour elsewhere), osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, and PAGET’S DISEASE OF BONE. Fractures of the spine – compressed fracture of a vertebra or a break in one of its spinous processes – are painful and potentially dangerous. (See BONE, DISORDERS OF.)

Backache can also be caused by disease elsewhere, such as infection of the kidney or gall-bladder (see LIVER), in?ammation of the PANCREAS, disorders in the UTERUS and PELVIS or osteoarthritis of the HIP. Treatment is e?ected by tackling the underlying cause. Among the many known causes of back pain are:

Mechanical and traumatic causes

Congenital anomalies. Fractures of the spine. Muscular tenderness and ligament strain. Osteoarthritis. Prolapsed intervertebral disc. Spondylosis.

In?ammatory causes

Ankylosing spondylitis. Brucellosis. Osteomyelitis. Paravertebral abscess. Psoriatic arthropathy. Reiter’s syndrome. Spondyloarthropathy. Tuberculosis.

Neoplastic causes

Metastatic disease. Primary benign tumours. Primary malignant tumours.

Metabolic bone disease

Osteomalacia. Osteoporosis. Paget’s disease.

Referred pain

Carcinoma of the pancreas. Ovarian in?ammation and tumours. Pelvic disease. Posterior duodenal ulcer. Prolapse of the womb.

Psychogenic causes

Anxiety. Depression.

People with backache can obtain advice from www.backcare.org.uk... backache

Night Sweats

Copious PERSPIRATION occurring in bed at night and found in conditions such as TUBERCULOSIS, BRUCELLOSIS and lymphomas (see LYMPHOMA), as well as thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), anxiety states and menopausal ?ushes (see MENOPAUSE).... night sweats

Occupational Health, Medicine And Diseases

Occupational health The e?ect of work on human health, and the impact of workers’ health on their work. Although the term encompasses the identi?cation and treatment of speci?c occupational diseases, occupational health is also an applied and multidisciplinary subject concerned with the prevention of occupational ill-health caused by chemical, biological, physical and psychosocial factors, and the promotion of a healthy and productive workforce.

Occupational health includes both mental and physical health. It is about compliance with health-and-safety-at-work legislation (and common law duties) and about best practice in providing work environments that reduce risks to health and safety to lowest practicable levels. It includes workers’ ?tness to work, as well as the management of the work environment to accommodate people with disabilities, and procedures to facilitate the return to work of those absent with long-term illness. Occupational health incorporates several professional groups, including occupational physicians, occupational health nurses, occupational hygienists, ergonomists, disability managers, workplace counsellors, health-and-safety practitioners, and workplace physiotherapists.

In the UK, two key statutes provide a framework for occupational health: the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974 (HSW Act); and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA). The HSW Act states that employers have a duty to protect the health, safety and welfare of their employees and to conduct their business in a way that does not expose others to risks to their health and safety. Employees and self-employed people also have duties under the Act. Modern health-and-safety legislation focuses on assessing and controlling risk rather than prescribing speci?c actions in di?erent industrial settings. Various regulations made under the HSW Act, such as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, the Manual Handling Operations Regulations and the Noise at Work Regulations, set out duties with regard to di?erent risks, but apply to all employers and follow the general principles of risk assessment and control. Risks should be controlled principally by removing or reducing the hazard at source (for example, by substituting chemicals with safer alternatives, replacing noisy machinery, or automating tasks to avoid heavy lifting). Personal protective equipment, such as gloves and ear defenders, should be seen as a last line of defence after other control measures have been put in place.

The employment provisions of the DDA require employers to avoid discriminatory practice towards disabled people and to make reasonable adjustments to working arrangements where a disabled person is placed at a substantial disadvantage to a non-disabled person. Although the DDA does not require employers to provide access to rehabilitation services – even for those injured or made ill at work – occupational-health practitioners may become involved in programmes to help people get back to work after injury or long-term illness, and many businesses see the retention of valuable sta? as an attractive alternative to medical retirement or dismissal on health grounds.

Although a major part of occupational-health practice is concerned with statutory compliance, the workplace is also an important venue for health promotion. Many working people rarely see their general practitioner and, even when they do, there is little time to discuss wider health issues. Occupational-health advisers can ?ll in this gap by providing, for example, workplace initiatives on stopping smoking, cardiovascular health, diet and self-examination for breast and testicular cancers. Such initiatives are encouraged because of the perceived bene?ts to sta?, to the employing organisation and to the wider public-health agenda. Occupational psychologists recognise the need for the working population to achieve a ‘work-life balance’ and the promotion of this is an increasing part of occupational health strategies.

The law requires employers to consult with their sta? on health-and-safety matters. However, there is also a growing understanding that successful occupational-health management involves workers directly in the identi?cation of risks and in developing solutions in the workplace. Trade unions play an active role in promoting occupational health through local and national campaigns and by training and advising elected workplace safety representatives.

Occupational medicine The branch of medicine that deals with the control, prevention, diagnosis, treatment and management of ill-health and injuries caused or made worse by work, and with ensuring that workers are ?t for the work they do.

Occupational medicine includes: statutory surveillance of workers’ exposure to hazardous agents; advice to employers and employees on eliminating or reducing risks to health and safety at work; diagnosis and treatment/management of occupational illness; advice on adapting the working environment to suit the worker, particularly those with disabilities or long-term health problems; and advice on the return to work and, if necessary, rehabilitation of workers absent through illness. Occupational physicians may play a wider role in monitoring the health of workplace populations and in advising employers on controlling health hazards where ill-health trends are observed. They may also conduct epidemiological research (see EPIDEMIOLOGY) on workplace diseases.

Because of the occupational physician’s dual role as adviser to both employer and employee, he or she is required to be particularly diligent with regards to the individual worker’s medical CONFIDENTIALITY. Occupational physicians need to recognise in any given situation the context they are working in, and to make sure that all parties are aware of this.

Occupational medicine is a medical discipline and thus is only part of the broader ?eld of occupational health. Although there are some speci?c clinical duties associated with occupational medicine, such as diagnosis of occupational disease and medical screening, occupational physicians are frequently part of a multidisciplinary team that might include, for example, occupational-health nurses, healthand-safety advisers, ergonomists, counsellors and hygienists. Occupational physicians are medical practitioners with a post-registration quali?cation in occupational medicine. They will have completed a period of supervised in-post training. In the UK, the Faculty of Occupational Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians has three categories of membership, depending on quali?cations and experience: associateship (AFOM); membership (MFOM); and fellowship (FFOM).

Occupational diseases Occupational diseases are illnesses that are caused or made worse by work. In their widest sense, they include physical and mental ill-health conditions.

In diagnosing an occupational disease, the clinician will need to examine not just the signs and symptoms of ill-health, but also the occupational history of the patient. This is important not only in discovering the cause, or causes, of the disease (work may be one of a number of factors), but also in making recommendations on how the work should be modi?ed to prevent a recurrence – or, if necessary, in deciding whether or not the worker is able to return to that type of work. The occupational history will help in deciding whether or not other workers are also at risk of developing the condition. It will include information on:

the nature of the work.

how the tasks are performed in practice.

the likelihood of exposure to hazardous agents (physical, chemical, biological and psychosocial).

what control measures are in place and the extent to which these are adhered to.

previous occupational and non-occupational exposures.

whether or not others have reported similar symptoms in relation to the work. Some conditions – certain skin conditions,

for example – may show a close relationship to work, with symptoms appearing directly only after exposure to particular agents or possibly disappearing at weekends or with time away from work. Others, however, may be chronic and can have serious long-term implications for a person’s future health and employment.

Statistical information on the prevalence of occupational disease in the UK comes from a variety of sources, including o?cial ?gures from the Industrial Injuries Scheme (see below) and statutory reporting of occupational disease (also below). Neither of these o?cial schemes provides a representative picture, because the former is restricted to certain prescribed conditions and occupations, and the latter suffers from gross under-reporting. More useful are data from the various schemes that make up the Occupational Diseases Intelligence Network (ODIN) and from the Labour Force Survey (LFS). ODIN data is generated by the systematic reporting of work-related conditions by clinicians and includes several schemes. Under one scheme, more than 80 per cent of all reported diseases by occupational-health physicians fall into just six of the 42 clinical disease categories: upper-limb disorders; anxiety, depression and stress disorders; contact DERMATITIS; lower-back problems; hearing loss (see DEAFNESS); and ASTHMA. Information from the LFS yields a similar pattern in terms of disease frequency. Its most recent survey found that over 2 million people believed that, in the previous 12 months, they had suffered from an illness caused or made worse by work and that

19.5 million working days were lost as a result. The ten most frequently reported disease categories were:

stress and mental ill-health (see MENTAL ILLNESS): 515,000 cases.

back injuries: 508,000.

upper-limb and neck disorders: 375,000.

lower respiratory disease: 202,000.

deafness, TINNITUS or other ear conditions: 170,000.

lower-limb musculoskeletal conditions: 100,000.

skin disease: 66,000.

headache or ‘eyestrain’: 50,000.

traumatic injury (includes wounds and fractures from violent attacks at work): 34,000.

vibration white ?nger (hand-arm vibration syndrome): 36,000. A person who develops a chronic occu

pational disease may be able to sue his or her employer for damages if it can be shown that the employer was negligent in failing to take reasonable care of its employees, or had failed to provide a system of work that would have prevented harmful exposure to a known health hazard. There have been numerous successful claims (either awarded in court, or settled out of court) for damages for back and other musculoskeletal injuries, hand-arm vibration syndrome, noise-induced deafness, asthma, dermatitis, MESOTHELIOMA and ASBESTOSIS. Employers’ liability (workers’ compensation) insurers are predicting that the biggest future rise in damages claims will be for stress-related illness. In a recent study, funded by the Health and Safety Executive, about 20 per cent of all workers – more than 5 million people in the UK – claimed to be ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ stressed at work – a statistic that is likely to have a major impact on the long-term health of the working population.

While victims of occupational disease have the right to sue their employers for damages, many countries also operate a system of no-fault compensation for the victims of prescribed occupational diseases. In the UK, more than 60 diseases are prescribed under the Industrial Injuries Scheme and a person will automatically be entitled to state compensation for disability connected to one of these conditions, provided that he or she works in one of the occupations for which they are prescribed. The following short list gives an indication of the types of diseases and occupations prescribed under the scheme:

CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME connected to the use of hand-held vibrating tools.

hearing loss from (amongst others) use of pneumatic percussive tools and chainsaws, working in the vicinity of textile manufacturing or woodworking machines, and work in ships’ engine rooms.

LEPTOSPIROSIS – infection with Leptospira (various listed occupations).

viral HEPATITIS from contact with human blood, blood products or other sources of viral hepatitis.

LEAD POISONING, from any occupation causing exposure to fumes, dust and vapour from lead or lead products.

asthma caused by exposure to, among other listed substances, isocyanates, curing agents, solder ?ux fumes and insects reared for research.

mesothelioma from exposure to asbestos.

In the UK, employers and the self-employed have a duty to report all occupational injuries (if the employee is o? work for three days or more as a result), diseases or dangerous incidents to the relevant enforcing authority (the Health and Safety Executive or local-authority environmental-health department) under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR). Despite this statutory duty, comparatively few diseases are reported so that ?gures generated from RIDDOR reports do not give a useful indication of the scale of occupational diseases in the UK. The statutory reporting of injuries is much better, presumably because of the clear and acute relationship between a workplace accident and the resultant injury. More than 160,000 injuries are reported under RIDDOR every year compared with just 2,500 or so occupational diseases, a gross underestimate of the true ?gure.

There are no precise ?gures for the number of people who die prematurely because of work-related ill-health, and it would be impossible to gauge the exact contribution that work has on, for example, cardiovascular disease and cancers where the causes are multifactorial. The toll would, however, dwarf the number of deaths caused by accidents at work. Around 250 people are killed by accidents at work in the UK each year – mesothelioma, from exposure to asbestos at work, alone kills more than 1,300 people annually.

The following is a sample list of occupational diseases, with brief descriptions of their aetiologies.

Inhaled materials

PNEUMOCONIOSIS covers a group of diseases which cause ?brotic lung disease following the inhalation of dust. Around 250–300 new cases receive bene?t each year – mostly due to coal dust with or without silica contamination. SILICOSIS is the more severe disease. The contraction in the size of the coal-mining industry as well as improved dust suppression in the mines have diminished the importance of this disease, whereas asbestos-related diseases now exceed 1,000 per year. Asbestos ?bres cause a restrictive lung disease but also are responsible for certain malignant conditions such as pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma and lung cancer. The lung-cancer risk is exacerbated by cigarette-smoking.

Even though the use of asbestos is virtually banned in the UK, many workers remain at risk of exposure because of the vast quantities present in buildings (much of which is not listed in building plans). Carpenters, electricians, plumbers, builders and demolition workers are all liable to exposure from work that disturbs existing asbestos. OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA is of increasing importance – not only because of the recognition of new allergic agents (see ALLERGY), but also in the number of reported cases. The following eight substances are most frequently linked to occupational asthma (key occupations in brackets): isocyanates (spray painters, electrical processors); ?our and grain (bakers and farmers); wood dust (wood workers); glutaraldehyde (nurses, darkroom technicians); solder/colophony (welders, electronic assembly workers); laboratory animals (technicians, scientists); resins and glues (metal and electrical workers, construction, chemical processors); and latex (nurses, auxiliaries, laboratory technicians).

The disease develops after a short, symptomless period of exposure; symptoms are temporally related to work exposures and relieved by absences from work. Removal of the worker from exposure does not necessarily lead to complete cessation of symptoms. For many agents, there is no relationship with a previous history of ATOPY. Occupational asthma accounts for about 10 per cent of all asthma cases. DERMATITIS The risk of dermatitis caused by an allergic or irritant reaction to substances used or handled at work is present in a wide variety of jobs. About three-quarters of cases are irritant contact dermatitis due to such agents as acids, alkalis and solvents. Allergic contact dermatitis is a more speci?c response by susceptible individuals to a range of allergens (see ALLERGEN). The main occupational contact allergens include chromates, nickel, epoxy resins, rubber additives, germicidal agents, dyes, topical anaesthetics and antibiotics as well as certain plants and woods. Latex gloves are a particular cause of occupational dermatitis among health-care and laboratory sta? and have resulted in many workers being forced to leave their profession through ill-health. (See also SKIN, DISEASES OF.)

Musculoskeletal disorders Musculoskeletal injuries are by far the most common conditions related to work (see LFS ?gures, above) and the biggest cause of disability. Although not all work-related, musculoskeletal disorders account for 36.5 per cent of all disabilities among working-age people (compared with less than 4 per cent for sight and hearing impairment). Back pain (all causes – see BACKACHE) has been estimated to cause more than 50 million days lost every year in sickness absence and costs the UK economy up to £5 billion annually as a result of incapacity or disability. Back pain is a particular problem in the health-care sector because of the risk of injury from lifting and moving patients. While the emphasis should be on preventing injuries from occurring, it is now well established that the best way to manage most lower-back injuries is to encourage the patient to continue as normally as possible and to remain at work, or to return as soon as possible even if the patient has some residual back pain. Those who remain o? work on long-term sick leave are far less likely ever to return to work.

Aside from back injuries, there are a whole range of conditions affecting the upper limbs, neck and lower limbs. Some have clear aetiologies and clinical signs, while others are less well de?ned and have multiple causation. Some conditions, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, are prescribed diseases in certain occupations; however, they are not always caused by work (pregnant and older women are more likely to report carpal tunnel syndrome irrespective of work) and clinicians need to be careful when assigning work as the cause without ?rst considering the evidence. Other conditions may be revealed or made worse by work – such as OSTEOARTHRITIS in the hand. Much attention has focused on injuries caused by repeated movement, excessive force, and awkward postures and these include tenosynovitis (in?ammation of a tendon) and epicondylitis. The greatest controversy surrounds upper-limb disorders that do not present obvious tissue or nerve damage but nevertheless give signi?cant pain and discomfort to the individual. These are sometimes referred to as ‘repetitive strain injury’ or ‘di?use RSI’. The diagnosis of such conditions is controversial, making it di?cult for sufferers to pursue claims for compensation through the courts. Psychosocial factors, such as high demands of the job, lack of control and poor social support at work, have been implicated in the development of many upper-limb disorders, and in prevention and management it is important to deal with the psychological as well as the physical risk factors. Occupations known to be at particular risk of work-related upper-limb disorders include poultry processors, packers, electronic assembly workers, data processors, supermarket check-out operators and telephonists. These jobs often contain a number of the relevant exposures of dynamic load, static load, a full or excessive range of movements and awkward postures. (See UPPER LIMB DISORDERS.)

Physical agents A number of physical agents cause occupational ill-health of which the most important is occupational deafness. Workplace noise exposures in excess of 85 decibels for a working day are likely to cause damage to hearing which is initially restricted to the vital frequencies associated with speech – around 3–4 kHz. Protection from such noise is imperative as hearing aids do nothing to ameliorate the neural damage once it has occurred.

Hand-arm vibration syndrome is a disorder of the vascular and/or neural endings in the hands leading to episodic blanching (‘white ?nger’) and numbness which is exacerbated by low temperature. The condition, which is caused by vibrating tools such as chain saws and pneumatic hammers, is akin to RAYNAUD’S DISEASE and can be disabling.

Decompression sickness is caused by a rapid change in ambient pressure and is a disease associated with deep-sea divers, tunnel workers and high-?ying aviators. Apart from the direct effects of pressure change such as ruptured tympanic membrane or sinus pain, the more serious damage is indirectly due to nitrogen bubbles appearing in the blood and blocking small vessels. Central and peripheral nervous-system damage and bone necrosis are the most dangerous sequelae.

Radiation Non-ionising radiation from lasers or microwaves can cause severe localised heating leading to tissue damage of which cataracts (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF) are a particular variety. Ionising radiation from radioactive sources can cause similar acute tissue damage to the eyes as well as cell damage to rapidly dividing cells in the gut and bone marrow. Longer-term effects include genetic damage and various malignant disorders of which LEUKAEMIA and aplastic ANAEMIA are notable. Particular radioactive isotopes may destroy or induce malignant change in target organs, for example, 131I (thyroid), 90Sr (bone). Outdoor workers may also be at risk of sunburn and skin cancers. OTHER OCCUPATIONAL CANCERS Occupation is directly responsible for about 5 per cent of all cancers and contributes to a further 5 per cent. Apart from the cancers caused by asbestos and ionising radiation, a number of other occupational exposures can cause human cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer regularly reviews the evidence for carcinogenicity of compounds and industrial processes, and its published list of carcinogens is widely accepted as the current state of knowledge. More than 50 agents and processes are listed as class 1 carcinogens. Important occupational carcinogens include asbestos (mesothelioma, lung cancer); polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons such as mineral oils, soots, tars (skin and lung cancer); the aromatic amines in dyestu?s (bladder cancer); certain hexavalent chromates, arsenic and nickel re?ning (lung cancer); wood and leather dust (nasal sinus cancer); benzene (leukaemia); and vinyl chloride monomer (angiosarcoma of the liver). It has been estimated that elimination of all known occupational carcinogens, if possible, would lead to an annual saving of 5,000 premature deaths in Britain.

Infections Two broad categories of job carry an occupational risk. These are workers in contact with animals (farmers, veterinary surgeons and slaughtermen) and those in contact with human sources of infection (health-care sta? and sewage workers).

Occupational infections include various zoonoses (pathogens transmissible from animals to humans), such as ANTHRAX, Borrelia burgdorferi (LYME DISEASE), bovine TUBERCULOSIS, BRUCELLOSIS, Chlamydia psittaci, leptospirosis, ORF virus, Q fever, RINGWORM and Streptococcus suis. Human pathogens that may be transmissible at work include tuberculosis, and blood-borne pathogens such as viral hepatitis (B and C) and HIV (see AIDS/HIV). Health-care workers at risk of exposure to infected blood and body ?uids should be immunised against hapatitis B.

Poisoning The incidence of occupational poisonings has diminished with the substitution of noxious chemicals with safer alternatives, and with the advent of improved containment. However, poisonings owing to accidents at work are still reported, sometimes with fatal consequences. Workers involved in the application of pesticides are particularly at risk if safe procedures are not followed or if equipment is faulty. Exposure to organophosphate pesticides, for example, can lead to breathing diffculties, vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal cramps, and to other neurological effects including confusion and dizziness. Severe poisonings can lead to death. Exposure can be through ingestion, inhalation and dermal (skin) contact.

Stress and mental health Stress is an adverse reaction to excessive pressures or demands and, in occupational-health terms, is di?erent from the motivational impact often associated with challenging work (some refer to this as ‘positive stress’). Stress at work is often linked to increasing demands on workers, although coping can often prevent the development of stress. The causes of occupational stress are multivariate and encompass job characteristics (e.g. long or unsocial working hours, high work demands, imbalance between e?ort and reward, poorly managed organisational change, lack of control over work, poor social support at work, fear of redundancy and bullying), as well as individual factors (such as personality type, personal circumstances, coping strategies, and availability of psychosocial support outside work). Stress may in?uence behaviours such as smoking, alcohol consumption, sleep and diet, which may in turn affect people’s health. Stress may also have direct effects on the immune system (see IMMUNITY) and lead to a decline in health. Stress may also alter the course and response to treatment of conditions such as cardiovascular disease. As well as these general effects of stress, speci?c types of disorder may be observed.

Exposure to extremely traumatic incidents at work – such as dealing with a major accident involving multiple loss of life and serious injury

(e.g. paramedics at the scene of an explosion or rail crash) – may result in a chronic condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is an abnormal psychological reaction to a traumatic event and is characterised by extreme psychological discomfort, such as anxiety or panic when reminded of the causative event; sufferers may be plagued with uncontrollable memories and can feel as if they are going through the trauma again. PTSD is a clinically de?ned condition in terms of its symptoms and causes and should not be used to include normal short-term reactions to trauma.... occupational health, medicine and diseases

Zoonoses

Animal diseases which can be transmitted to humans. There are more than 150 infections of domestic and wild vertebrates which can be transmitted in this way, including BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE), bovine tuberculosis, BRUCELLOSIS, HYDATID cysts, RINGWORM, TOXOCARIASIS, TOXOPLASMOSIS, LEPTOSPIROSIS, LISTERIOSIS, and RABIES.... zoonoses

Henna

Lawsonia alba, Lamk. Leaves. Regarded as a valuable medicine by the ancient world. Constituents: naphthaquinones, flavonoids, coumarins.

Action: astringent, anti-fertility, anti-fungal, antibacterial, antispasmodic, anti-haemorrhagic. Oxytocic. Uses. Tea used by the Chinese for simple headache. Smallpox, jaundice, leprosy (Ancient Arabian). Salmonella, brucellosis, staphylococcus aureus, streptococcus. Splenic enlargement.

Preparations: Tea: no longer taken internally, but used as a skin lotion.

Externally as a natural hair dye and conditioner. Rinses, dyes, shampoos, etc. Overuse turns the hair red. ... henna

Brucella

n. a genus of Gram-negative aerobic spherical or rodlike parasitic bacteria responsible for *brucellosis (undulant fever) in humans and contagious abortion in cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. The principal species are B. abortus and B. melitensis. Brucella ring test is a diagnostic test for brucellosis involving the clumping together of a standard Brucella strain by antibodies in an infected person’s serum.... brucella

Liver Disease In The Tropics

ACUTE LIVER DISEASE The hepatitis viruses (A– F) are of paramount importance. Hepatitis E (HEV) often produces acute hepatic failure in pregnant women; extensive epidemics – transmitted by contaminated drinking-water supplies – have been documented. HBV, especially in association with HDV, also causes acute liver failure in infected patients in several tropical countries: however, the major importance of HBV is that the infection leads to chronic liver disease (see below). Other hepatotoxic viruses include the EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS, CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (CMV), the ?avivirus causing YELLOW FEVER, Marburg/Ebola viruses, etc. Acute liver disease also occurs in the presence of several acute bacterial infections, including Salmonella typhi, brucellosis, leptospirosis, syphilis, etc. The complex type of jaundice associated with acute systemic bacterial infection – especially pneumococcal PNEUMONIA and pyomiositis – assumes a major importance in many tropical countries, especially those in Africa and in Papua New Guinea. Of protozoan infections, plasmodium falciparum malaria, LEISHMANIASIS, and TOXOPLASMOSIS should be considered. Ascaris lumbricoides (the roundworm) can produce obstruction to the biliary system. CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE Long-term disease is dominated by sequelae of HBV and HCV infections (often acquired during the neonatal period), both of which can cause chronic active hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (‘hepatoma’) – one of the world’s most common malignancies. Chronic liver disease is also caused by SCHISTOSOMIASIS (usually Schistosoma mansoni and S. japonicum), and acute and chronic alcohol ingestion. Furthermore, many local herbal remedies and also orthodox chemotherapeutic compounds (e.g. those used in tuberculosis and leprosy) can result in chronic liver disease. HAEMOSIDEROSIS is a major problem in southern Africa. Hepatocytes contain excessive iron – derived primarily from an excessive intake, often present in locally brewed beer; however, a genetic predisposition seems likely. Indian childhood cirrhosis – associated with an excess of copper – is a major problem in India and surrounding countries. Epidemiological evidence shows that much of the copper is derived from copper vessels used to store milk after weaning. Veno-occlusive disease was ?rst described in Jamaica and is caused by pyrrolyzidine alkaloids (present in bush-tea). Several HIV-associated ‘opportunistic’ infections can give rise to hepatic disease (see AIDS/HIV).

A localised (focal) form of liver disease in all tropical/subtropical countries results from invasive Entamoeba histolytica infection (amoebic liver ‘abscess’); serology and imaging techniques assist in diagnosis. Hydatidosis also causes localised liver disease; one or more cysts usually involve the right lobe of the liver. Serological tests and imaging techniques are of value in diagnosis. Whilst surgery formerly constituted the sole method of management, prolonged courses of albendazole and/or praziquantel have now been shown to be e?ective; however, surgical intervention is still required in some cases.

Hepato-biliary disease is also a problem in many tropical/subtropical countries. In southeast Asia, Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverini infections cause chronic biliary-tract infection, complicated by adenocarcinoma of the biliary system. Praziquantel is e?ective chemotherapy before advanced disease ensues. Fasciola hepatica (the liver ?uke) is a further hepato-biliary helminthic infection; treatment is with bithionol or triclabendazole, praziquantel being relatively ine?ective.... liver disease in the tropics

Pasteurisation

A method of sterilising milk (see also MILK – Preparation of milk). In many parts of the world, pasteurisation has done away with milk-borne infections, of which the most serious is bovine TUBERCULOSIS, affecting the glands, bones and joints of children. Other infections conveyed by milk are SCARLET FEVER, DIPHTHERIA, ENTERIC FEVER (typhoid and paratyphoid), undulant fever (BRUCELLOSIS), and food poisoning (e.g. from CAMPYLOBACTER, or the toxins of the STAPHYLOCOCCUS).

High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurisation consists of heating the milk at a temperature not less than 71·7 °C (161 °F) for at least 15 seconds, followed by immediate cooling to a temperature of not more than 10 °C (50 °F).

Low-temperature pasteurisation, or ‘holder’ process, consists in maintaining the milk for at least half an hour at a temperature between 63 and 65 °C (145–150 °F), followed by immediate cooling to a temperature of not more that 10 °C (50 °F). This has the e?ect of considerably reducing the number of bacteria contained in the milk, and of preventing the diseases conveyed by milk as referred to above.... pasteurisation

Rifampicin

An antibiotic derived from Streptomyces mediterranei, rifampicin is a key component of the treatment of TUBERCULOSIS. Like ISONIAZID, it should always be included unless there is a speci?c contraindication. It is also valuable in the treatment of BRUCELLOSIS, LEGIONNAIRE’S DISEASE, serious staphylococcal (see STAPHYLOCOCCUS) infections and LEPROSY. It is also given to contacts of certain forms of childhood MENINGITIS.

Rifampicin is given by mouth; during the ?rst two months it often causes transient disturbance of LIVER function, with raised concentrations of serum transaminases, but usually treatment need not be interrupted. In patients with pre-existing liver disease more severe toxicity may occur, and liver function should be carefully monitored both before starting and during rifampicin treatment. It induces hepatic enzymes which accelerate the metabolism of various drugs including ANTICOAGULANTS, SULPHONYLUREAS, PHENYTOIN SODIUM, CORTICOSTEROIDS and OESTROGENS. The e?ectiveness of oral contraceptives is reduced and alternative family-planning advice should be o?ered.

Rifampicin should be avoided during pregnancy and breast feeding, and extra caution should be applied if there is renal impairment, JAUNDICE or PORPHYRIAS. Adverse effects include gastrointestinal symptoms, in?uenza-like symptoms, collapse and SHOCK, haemolytic ANAEMIA, acute ?ushing and URTICARIA; body secretions may be coloured red.... rifampicin

Tetracyclines

A group of broad-spectrum ANTIBIOTICS which include oxytetracycline, tetracycline, doxycycline, lymecycline, minocycline, and demeclocycline.

All the preparations are virtually identical, being active against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN). Derived from cultures of streptomyces bacteria, their value has lessened owing to increasing resistance to the group among bacteria. However, they remain the treatment of choice for BRUCELLOSIS, LYME DISEASE, TRACHOMA, PSITTACOSIS, Q FEVER, SALPINGITIS, URETHRITIS and LYMPHOGRANULOMA INGUINALE, as well as for infections caused by MYCOPLASMA, certain rickettsiae (see RICKETTSIA) and CHLAMYDIA. Additionally they are used in the treatment of ACNE, but are not advised in children under 12 as they may produce permanent discoloration of the teeth. Tetracyclines must not be used if a woman is pregnant as the infant’s deciduous teeth will be stained.... tetracyclines

Mouse-ear

Mouse-ear hawkweed. Hieracium pilosella L. Dried herb. Keynote: cough. Constituents: flavonoids, coumarin.

Action: antitussive, anticatarrhal, expectorant, diuretic, sialogogue, antispasmodic, astringent, antibiotic (fresh plant only). A drying agent for profuse mucous discharge.

Uses: whooping cough, cough productive of much mucus. Profuse catarrh, haemoptysis (blood in the sputum), brucellosis (Malta fever), colitis. Bruised fresh plant used by Spanish shepherds for injuries in the field. Nosebleeds. Liver disorders.

BHP (1983) combination: Mouse-ear, White Horehound, Mullein and Coltsfoot (whooping cough). Preparations. Average dose: 2-4 grams, or equivalent; thrice daily (5-6 times daily, acute cases). Works best as a tea or in combination of teas rather than in alcohol.

Tea: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose, half-1 cup.

Liquid Extract: 30-60 drops, in water.

Home tincture: 1 part to 5 parts 45 per cent alcohol (Vodka, gin, etc). Macerate 8 days, shake daily.

Filter. Dose: 1-3 teaspoons in water.

Powder. 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). ... mouse-ear

Occupational Disease And Injury

Illnesses, disorders, or injuries that result from exposure to chemicals or dust, or are due to physical, psychological, or biological factors in the workplace.

Pneumoconiosis is fibrosis of the lung due to inhalation of industrial dusts, such as coal. Asbestosis is associated with asbestos in industry. Allergic alveolitis is caused by organic dusts (see farmer’s lung).

Industrial chemicals can damage the lungs if inhaled, or other major organs if they enter the bloodstream via the lungs or skin. Examples include fumes of cadmium, beryllium, lead, and benzene. Carbon tetrachloride and vinyl chloride are causes of liver disease. Many of these compounds can cause kidney damage. Work-related skin disorders include contact dermatitis and squamous cell carcinoma. Rare infectious diseases that are more common in certain jobs include brucellosis and Q fever (from livestock), psittacosis (from birds), and leptospirosis (from sewage). People who work with blood or blood products are at increased risk of viral hepatitis (see hepatitis, viral) and AIDS, as are healthcare professionals. The nuclear industry and some healthcare professions use measures to reduce the danger from radiation hazards. Other occupational disorders include writer’s cramp, carpal tunnel syndrome, singer’s nodes, Raynaud’s phenomenon, deafness, and cataracts.... occupational disease and injury




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