Fructose Health Dictionary

Fluid produced by the male on ejaculation from the penis at sexual orgasm. Each ejaculate contains up to 500 million spermatozoa (male germ cells) suspended in a ?uid that is secreted by the PROSTATE GLAND, seminal vesicles (see TESTICLE), and Cowper’s glands – a pair of small glands (also called the bulbo-urethral glands) that open into the URETHRA at the base of the penis. Semen, or seminal ?uid, contains a form of sugar (fructose) essential for the motility of sperm. The hormone TESTOSTERONE is a key element in the production of sperm and of seminal ?uid.... semen

Cassia senna

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Svarnapatri;

Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt;

Ben: Sonamukhi;

Mal: Sunnamukki, Chonnamukki, Nilavaka;

Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai;

Tel: Netatangedu

Importance: Indian Senna or Tinnevelly senna is a shrub very highly esteemed in India for its medicinal value. The leaves are useful in constipation, abdominal disorders, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, splenomegaly, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia, cough, bronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Pancha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for constipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important products of this system containing senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayyin”, “Hab Shabyar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Sharbat Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution: The plant is of Mediterranean origin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Arabia, parts of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is largely cultivated in Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.

Botany: The genus Cassia, belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a number of species, namely,

C. senna Linn. syn. C. angustifolia Vahl.

C. absus Linn.

C. alata Linn.

C. auriculata Linn.

C. burmanni Wight. syn. C. obovata (Linn.) Collad.

C. glauca Lam.

C. javanica Linn.

C. mimosoides Linn.

C. obtusifolia Linn. syn. C. tora Linn.

C. occidentalis Linn.

C. pumila Lam.

C. slamea Lam.

C. acutifolia Delile.

C. sophera Linn.

C. senna is a shrub or undershrub, 60-75cm in height with pale subterete or obtusely angled erect or spreading branches. Leaves are paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in number, ovate-lanceolate and glabrous. Flowers are yellowish, many and arranged in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat legumes, greenish brown to dark brown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,1994).

In commerce, the leaves and pods obtained from C. senna are known as “ Tinnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise both resemble to a large extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of their leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduced to little more than a line in breadth, while the other is from a quarter to half an inch in breadth. The drug known under the name of East Indian Senna is nearly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of the Alexandrian and the price being less, it probably will supersede it in general practice. Its size and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).

Agrotechnology: The plant requires a mild subtropical climate with warm winters which are free from frost for its growth. Semiarid areas with adequate irrigation facilities are ideal for cultivation. Areas having high rainfall, humidity and poor drainage are not suitable. Light or medium loamy soils with adequate drainage and pH varying from 7.0-8.2 are preferable. In South India both summer and winter crops are possible. The plant is propagated by seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20kg/ha. Seeds are sown in October-November (winter rainfed crop) or in February-March (irrigated crop). Higher seed rate is required for unirrigated crop. Seeds are sown in lines 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha before planting or raising a green manure crop is beneficial. About 40kg N and 25-50kg P2O5/ha applied as basal dressing and 40kg N/ha applied in 2 split dozes as top dressing gave better yield. While the rainfed crop is grown without irrigation, the irrigated crop requires 5-8 light irrigations during the entire growing season. The crop requires 2-3 weedings and hoeings in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata causes leaf spot and dieback but the disease is not serious. In North India, the plant is attacked by the larvae of butterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can be controlled by planting the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irrigated conditions, the first crop is obtained after 90 days of planting. The leaves are stripped by hand when they are fully green, thick and bluish-green in colour. The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop is harvested along with the pods. Yield under irrigated conditions is nearly1.4t of leaves and 150kg pods/ha and under unirrigated conditions is 500-600kg leaves and 80-100kg pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to retain the green colour and the pods are hung for 10-12 days to get dried. The leaves and pods are cleaned, graded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).

Properties and Activity: Leaves contain glucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilage consists of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennoside-C(8,8’- diglucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A and B, glycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic acid. Seeds contain -sitosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves and pods also contain 0.33% -sterol and flavonols-kaempferol, kaempferin, and iso-rhamnetin. Sennoside content of C. acutifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compared to C. angustifolia ranging from 1.5 % to 2.5%.

The purgative activity of Senna is attributed to its sennosides. The pods cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf and pod is laxative. The leaves are astringent, bitter, sweet, acrid, thermogenic, cathartic, depurative, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant and febrifuge.... indian senna

Linn.

Fam ? Liliaceae; Alliaceae.

Habitat: Native to Palestine; cultivated in India.

English: Shellot.

Ayurvedic: Grnjana.

Unani: Gandanaa, Ek-daanaa Lehsun, Ek-potia Lehsum. (Also equated with Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.)

Action: Anticoagulant, fibrinolytic, hypocholesterolaemic.

The aqueous extract of the bulbs contains mainly fructose (50%), besides glucose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, rhamnose, glucosamine and uronic acid. It also contains lysine, glu- tamic acid and aspartic acid. It shows significant activity against P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia in mice.

In experiments on rabbits, the alcoholic extracts of the bulb showed significant anticoagulant, fibrinolytic and hypocholesterolaemic properties.... allium ascalonicum

(Sunchoke)

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: Moderate Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: High Sodium: Moderate Major vitamin contribution: Folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium

About the Nutrients in This Food Jerusalem artichokes are the edible roots of a plant related to the American sunflower. They store carbohydrates as inulin, a complex carbohydrate (starch) made of units of fruit sugar (fructose). Right after the Jerusalem artichoke is dug up, it tastes bland and starchy. After it has been stored for a while, the starches turn to sugars, so the artichoke tastes sweet. Jerusalem artichokes are high in fiber with the B vitamin folate, vitamin C, and iron. One-half cup raw sliced Jerusalem artichoke has one gram dietary fiber, 10 mcg folate (2.5 percent of the adult R DA), 3 mcg vitamin C (4 percent of the R DA for a woman, 3 percent of the R DA for a man), and 2.5 mg iron (14 percent of the R DA for a woman, 32 percent of the R DA for a man).

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Sliced and served raw in salads or cooked as a vegetable side dish.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-sodium diet

Buying This Food Look for: Firm clean roots with no soft or bruised patches.

Storing This Food Refrigerate Jerusalem artichokes in plastic bags, covered containers or the vegetable crisper to protect their moisture and keep them fresh.

Preparing This Food When you slice a Jerusalem artichoke, you tear cell walls, releasing polyphenoloxidase, an enzyme that converts phenols to brown compounds that darken the flesh. You can slow the reaction (but not stop it completely) by painting the cut surface with a solution of lemon juice or vinegar and water.

What Happens When You Cook This Food In cooking, the starch granules in the Jerusalem artichoke absorb water, swell, and eventu- ally rupture, softening the root and releasing the nutrients inside.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Some people are unable to properly digest inulin, the carbohydrate in the Jerusalem arti- choke. For them, eating this tuber raw may cause painful gas. Cooking breaks down inulin and improves digestibility.... artichoke, jerusalem

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate Protein: Low Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Moderate Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium, magnesium

About the Nutrients in This Food A banana begins life with more starch than sugar, but as the fruit ripens its starches turn to sugar, which is why ripe bananas taste so much better than unripe ones.* The color of a banana’s skin is a fair guide to its starch/ sugar ratio. When the skin is yellow-green, 40 percent of its carbohydrates are starch; when the skin is fully yellow and the banana is ripe, only 8 per- cent of the carbohydrates are still starch. The rest (91 percent) have broken down into sugars—glucose, fructose, sucrose, the most plentiful sugar in the fruit. Its high sugar content makes the banana, in its self-contained packet, a handy energy source. Bananas are a high-fiber food with insoluble cellulose and lignin in the tiny seeds and soluble pectins in the flesh. They are also a good source of vitamin C and potassium. One small (six-inch) banana or a half-cup of sliced banana has 2.6 g dietary fiber and 8.8 mg vitamin C (12 percent of the R DA for a woman, 10 percent of the R DA for a man), plus 363 mg potassium.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Fresh and ripe. Green bananas contain antinutrients, proteins that inhibit the actions of amylase, an enzyme that makes it possible for us to digest * They are also more healt hful. Green bananas contain proteins t hat inhibit amy- lase, an enzyme t hat makes it possible for us to digest complex carbohydrates. starch and other complex carbohydrates. Raw bananas are richer in potassium than cooked bananas; heating depletes potassium.

Buying This Food Look for: Bananas that will be good when you plan to eat them. Bananas with brown specks on the skin are ripe enough to eat immediately. Bananas with creamy yellow skin will be ready in a day or two. Bananas with mostly yellow skin and a touch of green at either end can be ripened at home and used in two or three days. Avoid: Overripe bananas whose skin has turned brown or split open. A grayish yellow skin means that the fruit has been damaged by cold storage. Bananas with soft spots under the skin may be rotten.

Storing This Food Store bananas that aren’t fully ripe at room temperature for a day or two. Like avocados, bananas are picked green, shipped hard to protect them from damage en route and then sprayed with ethylene gas to ripen them quickly. Untreated bananas release ethylene natu- rally to ripen the fruit and turn its starches to sugar, but natural ripening takes time. Artificial ripening happens so quickly that there is no time for the starches to turn into sugar. The bananas look ripe but they may taste bland and starchy. A few days at room temperature will give the starches a chance to change into sugars. Store ripe bananas in the refrigerator. The cold air will slow (but not stop) the natural enzyme action that ripens and eventually rots the fruit if you leave it at room temperature. Cold storage will darken the banana’s skin, since the chill damages cells in the peel and releases polyphenoloxidase, an enzyme that converts phenols in the banana peel to dark brown compounds, but the fruit inside will remain pale and tasty for several days.

Preparing This Food Do not slice or peel bananas until you are ready to use them. When you cut into the fruit, you tear its cell walls, releasing polyphenoloxidase, an enzyme that hastens the oxidation of phenols in the banana, producing brown pigments that darken the fruit. (Chilling a banana produces the same reaction because the cold damages cells in the banana peel.) You can slow the browning (but not stop it completely) by dipping raw sliced or peeled bananas into a solution of lemon juice or vinegar and water or by mixing the slices with citrus fruits in a fruit salad. Overripe, discolored bananas can be used in baking, where the color doesn’t matter and their intense sweetness is an asset.

What Happens When You Cook This Food When bananas are broiled or fried, they are cooked so quickly that there is very little change in color or texture. Even so, they will probably taste sweeter and have a more intense aroma than uncooked bananas. Heat liberates the volatile molecules that make the fruit taste and smell good.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Drying. Drying removes water and concentrates the nutrients and calories in bananas. Bananas may be treated with compounds such as sulfur dioxide to inhibit polyphenoloxi- dase and keep the bananas from browning as they dry. People who are sensitive to sulfites may suffer severe allergic reactions, including anaphylactic shock, if they eat these treated bananas. Freezing. Fresh bananas freeze well but will brown if you try to thaw them at room tem- perature. To protect the creamy color, thaw frozen bananas in the refrigerator and use as quickly as possible.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Lower risk of stroke. Various nutrition studies have attested to the power of adequate potassium to keep blood pressure within safe levels. For example, in the 1990s, data from the long-running Harvard School of Public Health/Health Professionals Follow-Up Study of male doctors showed that a diet rich in high-potassium foods such as bananas, oranges, and plantain may reduce the risk of stroke. In the study, the men who ate the higher number of potassium-rich foods (an average of nine servings a day) had a risk of stroke 38 percent lower than that of men who consumed fewer than four servings a day. In 2008, a similar survey at the Queen’s Medical Center (Honolulu) showed a similar protective effect among men and women using diuretic drugs (medicines that increase urination and thus the loss of potassium). Improved mood. Bananas and plantains are both rich in serotonin, dopamine, and other natural mood-elevating neurotransmitters—natural chemicals that facilitate the transmis- sion of impulses along nerve cells. Potassium benefits. Because potassium is excreted in urine, potassium-rich foods are often recommended for people taking diuretics. In addition, a diet rich in potassium (from food) is associated with a lower risk of stroke. A 1998 Harvard School of Public Health analysis of data from the long-running Health Professionals Study shows 38 percent fewer strokes among men who ate nine servings of high potassium foods a day vs. those who ate less than four servings. Among men with high blood pressure, taking a daily 1,000 mg potas- sium supplement—about the amount of potassium in one banana—reduced the incidence of stroke by 60 percent.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Digestive Problems. Unripe bananas contain proteins that inhibit the actions of amylase, an enzyme required to digest starch and other complex carbohydrates. Sulfite allergies. See How other kinds of processing affect this food. Latex-fruit syndrome. Latex is a milky fluid obtained from the rubber tree and used to make medical and surgical products such as condoms and protective latex gloves, as well as rub- ber bands, balloons, and toys; elastic used in clothing; pacifiers and baby bottle-nipples; chewing gum; and various adhesives. Some of the proteins in latex are allergenic, known to cause reactions ranging from mild to potentially life-threatening. Some of the proteins found naturally in latex also occur naturally in foods from plants such as avocados, bananas, chestnuts, kiwi fruit, tomatoes, and food and diet sodas sweetened with aspartame. Persons sensitive to these foods are likely to be sensitive to latex as well. NOTE : The National Insti- tute of Health Sciences, in Japan, also lists the following foods as suspect: Almonds, apples, apricots, bamboo shoots, bell peppers, buckwheat, cantaloupe, carrots, celery, cherries, chestnuts, coconut, figs, grapefruit, lettuce, loquat, mangoes, mushrooms, mustard, nectar- ines, oranges, passion fruit, papaya, peaches, peanuts, peppermint, pineapples, potatoes, soybeans, strawberries, walnuts, and watermelon.

Food/Drug Interactions Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are drugs used to treat depression. They inactivate naturally occurring enzymes in your body that metabolize tyra- mine, a substance found in many fermented or aged foods. Tyramine constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure. If you eat a food containing tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, you cannot effectively eliminate the tyramine from your body. The result may be a hypertensive crisis. There have been some reports in the past of such reactions in people who have eaten rotten bananas or bananas stewed with the peel. False-positive test for tumors. Carcinoid tumors—which may arise from tissues of the endo- crine system, the intestines, or the lungs—secrete serotonin, a natural chemical that makes blood vessels expand or contract. Because serotonin is excreted in urine, these tumors are diagnosed by measuring the levels of serotonin by-products in the urine. Bananas contain large amounts of serotonin; eating them in the three days before a test for an endocrine tumor might produce a false-positive result, suggesting that you have the tumor when in fact you don’t. (Other foods high in serotonin are avocados, eggplant, pineapple, plums, tomatoes, and walnuts.)... bananas

Koen.

Synonym: Madhuca longifolia (Linn.) Macbride.

Family: Sapotaceae.

Habitat: South India; common in the monsoon forests of Western Ghats.

English: Mowra Butter tree, South Indian Mahua.

Siddha/Tamil: Illupei, Elupa, Naatu, Iluppei, Iruppei.

Action: Flowers—laxative, bechic (used in coughs, colds and bronchitis), stimulant and nervine tonic. Seed oil—galactogenic, anticephalalgic, laxative in cases of habitual constipation and piles; used externally in rheumatism and skin affections. Bark, seed oil and gum—antirheumatic.

The herb contains 17% tannins and is used for bleeding and spongy gums, tonsillitis, ulcers, rheumatism and diabetes mellitus. Roots are applied to ulcers.

Seed kernel gave protobassic acid (a sapogenol) and two major saponins— Mi-saponins A and B. Mi-saponins (bisdesmosides of protobassic acid) exhibit anti-inflammatory activity in rheumatism.

The carollas are a rich source of sugars and contain an appreciable amount of vitamins and calcium (total sugars 72.9%, calcium 140 mg/100 g). Sugars are identified as sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, arabinose and rham- nose. Flowers are largely used in the preparation of distilled liquors. They constitute the most important raw material for fermentative production of alcohol.... bassia longifolia

Terminalia spp.

Combretaceae

The genus Terminalia includes a large group of medicinally valuable trees. They belong to the family Combretaceae.

The most important medicinal species of the genus Terminalia are the following.

1) T. arjuna (Roxb.ex DC) Wight & Arn.

San: Arjunah, Kakubhah;

Hin: Arjun, Kahu, Kahua;

Mal: Marutu, Nirmarutu, Venmarutu, Attumarutu, Pulamatti;

Tam: Attumarutu, Nirmarutu, Vellaimarutu, Marutu;

Kan: Maddi.

It is a large evergreen tree commonly found in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Peninsular and India. It has buttressed trunk and spreading crown with drooping branches. Bark is smooth, grey outside and flesh coloured inside, flaking off in large flat pieces. Leaves are simple, sub-opposite, oblong or elliptic, coriaceous, crenulate, pale dull green above, pale brown beneath, often unequal sided, nerves 10-15 pairs and reticulate. Flowers are white, arranged in panicles of spikes with linear bracteoles. Fruits are ovoid or oblong with 5-7 short, hard angles or wings, the lines on the wings oblique and curving upward (Warrier et al 1996).

The bark is useful in fractures, ulcers, urethrorrhoea, leucorrhoea, diabetes, vitiated conditions of pitta, anaemia, cardiopathy, fatigue, asthma, bronchitis, tumours, internal and external haemorrhages, cirrhosis of the lever and hypertension. It is used in fractures and the powdered bark is taken with milk. The bark powder is diuretic and has a general tonic effect in cases of cirrhosis of liver. The bark has been considered by the ayurvedic physicians as well as by modern practitioners as a cardiac tonic. It is given as a decoction with milk (NRF, 1998). In Ayurveda, “Arjunaghrita” and “Arjunarishta” are two important cardiotonic preparations of this drug.

Fruits contain flavanones - arjunone and 5,7,2’, 4’ - tetramethoxy flavone and a chalcone - cerasidin. Other constituents are -sitosterol, friedelin, methyloleanolate, gallic acid, ellagic acid and arjunic acid. Bark gave a triterpene arjungenin, triterpene glucosides I, II and III. Stem bark gave flavones - baicalein and arjunolone characterised as 6,4’ - dihydraxy - 7-methoxy flavone. Stem bark yields oxalic acid and tannins besides complex glycosides (Bhatra et al, 1980). Bark is alexertic, styptic, antidysenteric, astringent, antiasthmatic, febrifuge, expectorant, cardiotonic aphrodisiac and diuretic. Fruit is deobstruent. Stem-bark is CVS and CNS active, diuretic and abortifacient. Aerial part is CNS depressant and semen coagulant.

2) T. alata Heyne ex Roth. Syn. T. tomentosa (Roxb. Ex. Dc.) W & A.

San: Dharaphala, Saradru, Sajada;

Hin. Ain;

Ben: Asan, Paishal;

Mal: Tehmbara;

Tam: Karramarda, Karu Murutha, Marudam, Pudavam.

This tree is distributed in Himalaya from Kangra eastwords to Goalpara in Assam and southwards throughout the Peninsular India, upto 1200 m. The bark of the tree is widely used in ulcers, fractures, bronchitis and diarrhoea. Hydrolysis of the gum gives oligosaccharides, disaccharides and monosaccharides. Leaves and fruits give -sitosterol. Bark is diuretic, antihaemorrhagic, styptic, cardiotonic and semen coagulant.

3) T. bellirica (Craertn.) Roxb.

San: Aksha, Anilaghanaka, Baheduka, Harya, Kalinda;

Hin: Bulla, Sagona;

Ben: Bahera, Baheri;

Tam: Akkam, Kalanduri, Tani;

Tel: Bhutavasamu Tadi, Tandra, Vibhutakamu.

Belliric Myrobalan is distributed throughout India, upto 900 m. Its bark is used in anaemia and leucoderma. The fruit is used in bronchitis, strangury, sore throat, diseases of eye, nose, heart and bladder, hoarseness and piles. It forms an important constituent of the ayurvedic drug ‘triphala’. Furits contain -sitosterol, gallic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate, galloyl glucose, chebulagic acid and a cardiac glucoside bellaricanin. Alcoholic extract of the fruit possesses bile-stimulating activity. Alcoholic extract, 30 mg/kg does not affect blood pressure and respiration, but a higher dose of 60 mg/kg produces a fall in blood pressure. Furit has anticancerous and flower has spermicidal activity. Bark is mild diuretic. Fruit is astringent, antidropsical, antileprotic, antiinflammatory, antidiarrhoeal, antibilious, stomachic, antiasthmatic, tonic, anticephalgic, bechic, anthelmintic and attenuant. Kernel is narcotic. Semi -ripe fruit is purgative. Gum is demulcent (Husain et al, 1992)

4) T. bialata steud.

White Chugalam or silver grey wood is a common tree of Andaman Islands. Its bark is used as a cardiac stimulant.

5) T. Catappa Linn.

San: Grahadruma;

Hin: Badam;

Ben: Bangla Badam:

Tam: Natuvdom, Vadhamkottai;

Tel: Vedam, Voda Movettilla; Mar: Jangli Badama, Nat Badam.

Indian Almond or Tropical Almond is a popular tree cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India including Andaman Islands and other adjacent island. Oil from the kernel is a substitute for almond oil. The leaf is used in scabies and colic. Husk and endocarp contain tannins and pentosans. Oil from kernel contains oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Heart wood and stem bark contains -sitosterol and its palmitate. Heartwood in addition contains terminolic acid and triterpenic methyl esters. The aerial part of the plant is diuretic. The bark is astringent, mild diuretic, cardiotonic and antidysenteric. Leaf is sudorific, antirheumatic, antileprotic and anticephalalgic.

6) T. Coriacea (Roxb.) syn. T. tomentosa (Roxb. ex. DC.) W. & A. var. coriacea (Roxb.) C. B. Clarke

Tam: Anaimikkuvam, Sadagam;

Kan: Banapu;

Tel: Tani.

Leathery Murdah is a tree commonly used as a cardiac stimulant. It is widely distributed in the drier and warmer parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu upto 1350 m and in Central India. Its bark is mainly used as a cardiac stimulant and in atonic diarrhoea and callous ulcer. It is also CVS active.

7) T. myriocarpa Heurck. & Muell. Arg.

Ben: Panisaj; Ass: Hollock, Jhalna.

Hollock is a tree of the Himalayas widely distributed from Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh and in Assam at 1000 m. The bark is cardiac stimulant and mild diuretic. Bark give -sitosterol, fructose and 4,4’,5,5’,6,6’ - hexadydroxy diphenic acid dilactone. Bark also contains tannis - ellagic, gallic, chebulinic and chebulagic acids.

8) T. Pallida Brandis.

Tam: Vellai Kadukkay;

Tel: Tella Karaka, Velama Karka.

The plant is distributed throughout south India, upto 600m. Its bark is a mild diuretic.

9) T. Paniculata Roth.

Mal: Marutu, Pe Marutu, Ven Marutu;

Tam: Pei Kadukai, Ven Maruthu, Ilai Kadukkay, Marudu, Pullatti;

Tel: Nimiri, Pulamaddi, Putamanu, Pulanallamanu;

Kan: Maruva, Matti.

Flowering Murdah is a tree which is widely used in opium poisoning. It is distributed in the Western and Eastern Ghats, upto 1200m. The bark is used in parotitis and flowers in opium poisioning. Heart wood give 3, 3’-0-di-methylellagic acid and 3,4,3’0-trimethyl flavellagic acid, -sitosterol, an uncharacterized triterpene carboxylic acid; a glycoside -3,3’ di-0 - methyl ellagic acid - 4 - monoglucoside and 0 - penta methyl flavellogic acid. The stem bark is anticancerous, diuretic, cardiotonic CVS active and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Flower is anticholerin (Husain et al, 1992)

10) Terminalia chebula Retz. Syn. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertner

Eng: Chebulic myrobalan;

San,

Ben: Haritaki;

Hindi:Harara, Harir,

Har; Mal:Kadukka; Ass:Hilikha; Kan:Alale;

Mar:Habra,

Hirada;

Ori:Harida;

Guj: Hirdo;

Pun:Helela;

Tam:Amagola;

Tel: Karaka

Chebulic myrobalan is a medium deciduous tree, the fruit of which is a common constituent of “Triphala” capable of imparting youthful vitality and receptivity of mind and sense. It is a major constituent in the ayurvedic preparations like Abhayarishta, Abhaya modak, Haritaki khand, Triphaladi churnam and Agastya rasayanam. In allopathy it is used in astringent ointments. In unani system, it is used as a blood purifier. The pulp of the fruit is given in piles, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, costiveness, flatulence, asthma, urinary disorders, vomiting, hiccup, intestinal worms, ascites and enlarged spleen and liver. Powder of the fruit is used in chronic ulcers and wounds, carious teeth and bleeding ulceration of the gums. The bark is a good cardiac tonic. The fruit is valuable for its tannins and dyes. The wood is used for building purposes, agricultural implements, plywood and match box industries. It is also grown as a shade tree.

The plant is found throughout India chiefly in deciduous forests, on dry slopes upto 900m especially in Bengal, Tamil Nadu, West coast and Western Ghats. The plant is also reported in Sri Lanka, Nepal and Burma.

Terminalia chebula Retz. syn. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertner comes under family Combretaceae. It is a medium sized deciduous tree with a cylindrical bole, rounded crown, spreading branches with dark brown bark and brownish gray heartwood. Leaves are simple, alternate or subopposite, ovate or elliptic ovate with short petioles bearing 2 glands below the blades. Flowers pale yellow or white in 4-10cm long axillary spikes. Calyx tube hairy pale yellow and 5 lobed; no petals. Stamens consist of 10 filaments subulate, anthers small; ovary inferior, 1-celled with 2-3 pendulous ovule. Fruit is a drupe, ovoid glossy, glabrous, faintly angled and yellow to orange brown in colour. Seeds are hard and pale yellow.

Kernel oil of Chebulic myrobalan contains 6 fatty acids viz. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic and behenic acid. The fruits contain chebulinic acid, tannic acid, gallic acid, chebulin and tannin. Leaves contain terpenes and saponins and -sitosterol is present in the bark (Beri, 1970; Khalique and Nizamuddin, 1972; Miglani and Chawla, 1974). Fruits are astringent, purgative, tonic, carminative, alternative and antispasmodic. Flowers and fruits are antiviral and hypoglycaemic. Wood is oxytocic and hypothermic (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology: Terminalia species are, in general, subtropical trees. Young plants prefer shade while the matured plants tolerate light frost and drought. It grows well in hilly areas. This is propagated by seeds. Natural multiplication happens rarely due to the poor seeds germination. Seeds soaked in water for 48 hours before sowing in seedbeds which should be covered with straw after sowing. It is watered immediately. Usually it takes 3-5 months to germinate. It can be transferred to polybags at two-leaf stage. One-year-old seedlings are ready for transplanting. For transplanting, pits are made of 50cm cube at a spacing of 4m. Organic manure, added regularly, promotes growth. Irrigation is required during first year. Weeds should be removed regularly. This plant grows slowly. It fruits within 6-7 years. This is continued for many years. It is coppiced well. Fruits are collected immediately after falling down or covered with soil to protect it from pests. Fruits dried well in sun and used or stored. The hard seed coat is removed before sowing.... terminalia

A rare genetic disorder characterized by muscle stiffness and painful cramps that increase during exertion and afterwards. The cause is a deficiency of an enzyme in muscle cells that stimulates breakdown of the carbohydrate glycogen into the simple sugar glucose. The result is a build-up of glycogen and low levels of glucose in the muscles. Damage to the muscles occurs, causing myoglobinuria (muscle-cell pigment in the urine), which may lead to kidney failure. There is no treatment, but symptoms may be relieved by eating glucose or fructose before exercise.... mcardle’s disease

(levulosuria) n. the presence of fructose (levulose) in the urine.... fructosuria

Linn.

Family: Boraginaceae.

Habitat: The Mediteranean region, Europe and Asia.

English: Borage, Cow's Tongue Plant.

Unani: Gaozabaan (Onosma bracteatum Wall. has also been equated with Gaozabaan).

Action: Fresh herb (compounded with water)—refreshing, restorative and nervine tonic. Leaves and flowers—diuretic, febrifuge, expectorant, demulcent, emollient; promote the activity of kidneys; alleviate pulmonary affections.

The drug strengthens adrenal glands and is given for stress, mental exhau- sion and depression; provides support to stomach and intestines in cases of infection and toxicity. Used as a tonic to counteract the lingering effects of steroid therapy. Seeds relieve irritable bowel syndrome and regulate menstruation.

The leaves contain lycopsamine and supindine viridiflorate as the predominant unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Due to low concentration of these alkaloids Borage is not toxic.

The drug contains potassium and calcium, combined with mineral acids. The fresh juice affords 30%, the dried herb 3% of nitrate of potash. The stems and leaves supply much saline mucilage. These saline qualities are mainly responsible for the wholesome invigorating properties of Borage.

Borage imparts pleasant flavour and cooling effect to beverages. In India, squashes and syrups, sold during summer, contain Borage extract.

Borage contains ascorbic acid (38 mg/100 g). Flowers contain cholin, glucose, fructose, amino acids, tannin (about 3%). Seeds contain protein (20.9%) and an oil (38.3%). The seed oil is one of the important sources of gamma-linoleic acid and linoleic acid. Borage oil, combined with Evening Primrose oil, is used in hypercholes- terolaemia.

Borage seed oil is used for rheumatoid arthritis, atopic eczema, infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis, neurodermati- tis, also for PMS and for preventing heart disease and stroke. Only UPA (unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids) free oil is given internally.

Listed by German Commission E among unapproved herbs.

It has been suggested that borage not be used with drugs known to lower the seizure threshold such as tricyclic an- tidepressants and phenothiazines due to GLA content (only borage seed oil contains significant amounts of GLA). (Francis Brinker.)... borago officinalis

Willd.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: The sub-Himalayan tract from Kashmir eastwards to Assam, and in Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

Ayurvedic: Ekaviraa.

Siddha/Tamil: Venge-maram.

Folk: Gondni, Asaanaa (Maharashtra).

Action: Bark and Root—astringent, anthelmintic. Used in the treatment of bone fracture.

The root contains 5.7% tannins.

The leaves contain beta-sitosterol, its beta-D-glucoside and a triterpe- noid. Fructose, glucose and sucrose were identified as the components of the glycoside.... bridelia montana

Linn.

Family: Asteraceae.

Habitat: Cultivated mainly as an oil-seed crop in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.

English: Safflower.

Ayurvedic: Kusumbha, Vahin- shikhaa, Vastraranjaka, Kusum.

Unani: Qurtum.

Siddha/Tamil: Chendurakam.

Action: Oil—aids prevention of arteriosclerosis, coronary heart disease and kidney disorders as a polyunsaturated fat. Flowers— stimulant, sedative, diuretic, emmenagogue; used in fevers and eruptive skin conditions, measles.

Charred safflower oil is used in rheumatism and for healing sores.

Key application: Dried flowers— in cardiovascular diseases, amen- orrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and retention of lochia; also in wounds and sores with pain and swelling. (Pharmocopoeia of the People's Republic of China, 1997.)

Safflower contains carthamone, lig- nans and a polysaccharide. The polysaccharide, composed of xylose, fructose, galactose, glucose, arabinose, rhamnose and uronic acid residues, stimulates immune function in mice. It induced antibody formation in mice following peritoneal injection. Extracts of flowers have also been tested in China on blood coagulation, where a prolongation of clothing time was observed and platelet aggregation inhibited. Chinese research indicates that Safflower flowers can reduce coronary artery disease, and lower cholesterol levels. Flowers and seeds exhibit lipase activity. The flower extract also exhibited anti-inflammatory, sedative and analgesic effect and inhibitory effect on spontaneous motor activity.

The plant contains a propanetriol derivative, which can be used for the treatment of circulatory disorders.

Recent research suggests that improving the lipid profile might not be as important to reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease as suggested. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Safflower is contraindicated in pregnancy, gastric disorders, excessive menstruation, haemorrhagic diseases.

Wild and thorny Safflower, growing in the arid tract of Haryana and Punjab (locally known as Kantiaari, Poli, Poiyan) is equated with C. oxy- cantha Bieb. The plant is diuretic. Seed oil is applied topically to ulcers. The plant contains a sesquiterpene gly- coside. Aerial parts contain hinesol- beta-D-fucopyranoside. The plant also contains luteolin-7-glucoside.

Dosage: Leaf—3-6 g powder. (CCRAS.)... carthamus tinctorius

n. a simple sugar that terminates with a keto group (?C=O); for example, *fructose.... ketose

n. an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-diphosphate. This is an important reaction occurring during the process of *glycolysis.... phosphofructokinase

n. an enzyme, secreted by glands in the small intestine, that catalyses the hydrolysis of sucrose into its components (glucose and fructose).... sucrase

Mill.

Family: Cactaceae.

Habitat: Indian gardens.

English: Cereus, Night Blooming Cereus, Sweet Scented Cactus.

Folk: Nivadung Paanchkoni (Maharashtra).

Action: Fresh, young shoots—cardiac stimulant, anti-inflammatory.

The plant contains glucose, fructose, starch, amino acids and citric, fumar- ic, maleic, malonic and oxalic acids. Tyramine, a cardiotonic amine, can strengthen heart muscle action.

The flower, stem and young shoots of cereus can stimulate heart and dilate peripheral vessels, as well as stimulate spinal cord motor neurons. The reputed digitalis effect of cereus is claimed to be non-cumulative. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... cereus grandiflorus

Rose.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India; wild in Eastern Himalaya.

English: Zedoary, Zerumbet.

Ayurvedic: Karchuura, Draavida, Palaashi, Kachura, Gandhmuulaka, Shati.

Unani: Zarambaad. Siddha/Tamil: Kichhilikkizhangu.

Action: Carminative, stomaehie, gastrointestinal stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, demulcent, rubefacient. Used in flatulence and dyspepsia. Fresh root is used for checking lecorrhoeal discharge; also for blood purification. Zedoary's effect on digestive organs is similar to ginger but milder.

Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the rhizome in goiter.

The rhizomes are a source of Shoti Starch, used as a food for babies and convalescents, recovering from chronic stomatitis. It is cooling and demulcent.

Zedoary, dried rhizomes, contains a number of terpenoids, including curcumene, curcumenone, curdione, curcumenol. Curzerenone, furanoger- menone, germacrone, germacrone epoxide; a volatile oil (1.0-1.5%) resembling ginger oil, and starch (50%).

Zedoary is thought to stimulate bile production (due to sesquiterpene ke- tones) and gall bladder emptying (due to cucuminoid constituents).

The sesquiterpenes, germacrone, germacrone epoxide, curzerenone and curcumenol showed CNS depressant properties. Curzerenone also showed a potent protective effect against induced lesions in rats. Both curz- erenone and curcumenol showed a moderate analgesic action.

The terpenoid furanogermenone exhibits antiallergic activity. (Powdered zedoary, mixed with fructose, is used as an antiallergant in Japan.)

Curcumenol and curdione are shown to possess tumour-inhibiting property. The rhizome is used in China for extradural haematomas and certain types of tumours. It has been reported in China that zedoary reduced cervical cancer and increased the effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

The volatile oil of zedoary exhibits antimicrobial and antifungal activity. The antifungal constituent of the oil has been reported as methyl-p-methoxy- cinnamate.

Dosage: Dried rhizome—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. IV.)... curcuma zedoaria

Linn.

Synonym: D. atropurpurea Roxb. D. globosa Roxb. D. purpurea Roxb.

Family: Dioscoreaceae.

Habitat: Native to East Asia; cultivated in Assam, Vadodara, Tamil Nadu, Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.

English: Wild Yam, Greater Yam, Asiatic Yam.

Ayurvedic: Kaashthaaluka. Aaluka (var.). Aalukas (yams) of Ayurvedic texts, belong to Dioscorea spp.

Siddha/Tamil: Perumvalli kizhangu.

Folk: Kathaalu.

Action: Even the best among the cultivated yams causes irritation in the throat or a feeling of discomfort when eaten raw. Wild yams—cholagogue, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, diuretic. Also used for painful periods, cramps and muscle tension.

Key application: Dioscorea villosa L., Wild Yam—as spasmolytic, anti-inflammatory. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

The edible tubers of Dioscorea alata are purple-coloured and contain an- thocyanins, cyanidin and peonidin- 3-gentiobioside acylated with sinapic acid. The tubers contain surcose, while leaves contain large quantities of D- fructose, D-glucose and the polyols, 2-deoxyribitol, 6-deoxysorbitol and glycerol.

Mouldy yams are reported to contain a compound ipomeanol which is being tested against human lung cancer. (J. Am Med Assoc, 1994,15, 23.)

Diosgenin obtained from Dioscorea species was used in the first commercial production of oral contraceptives, topical hormones, systemic corticos- teroids, androgens, estrogens, pro- gestogens and other sex hormones.

The chemical transformation of di- osgenin to estrogen, progesterone or any other steroidal compound does not occur in human body. Topically applied Wild Yam does not appear to cause changes in serum FSH, estradi- ol or progesterone. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Diosgenin, combined with the drug clofibrate, caused a greater decrease in LDL than either substance alone in rats. (Sharon M. Herr.)... dioscorea alata

n. a carbohydrate consisting of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is the principal constituent of cane sugar and sugar beet; it is the sweetest of the natural dietary carbohydrates. The increasing consumption of sucrose in the last 50 years has coincided with an increase in the incidence of dental caries, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and obesity.... sucrose

n. any *carbohydrate that dissolves in water, is usually crystalline, and has a sweet taste. Sugars are classified chemically as *monosaccharides or *disaccharides. Table sugar is virtually 100% pure *sucrose and contains no other nutrient; brown sugar is less highly refined sucrose. Sugar is used as both a sweetening and preserving agent. See also fructose; glucose; lactose.... sugar

(Hominy) See also Flour, Vegetable oils, Wheat cereals.

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate Protein: Moderate Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: High Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin A (in yellow corn), B vitamins, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium

About the Nutrients in This Food Like other grains, corn is a high-carbohydrate, high-fiber food. Eighty-one percent of the solid material in the corn kernel consists of sugars, starch, and dietary fiber, including insoluble cellulose and noncarbohydrate lignin in the seed covering and soluble pectins and gums in the kernel.* Corn has small amounts of vitamin A, the B vitamin folate, and vitamin C. Corn is a moderately good source of plant proteins, but zein (its major protein) is deficient in the essential amino acids lysine, cystine, and tryptophan. Corn is low in fat and its oils are composed primarily of unsaturated fatty acids. Yellow corn, which gets its color from the xanthophyll pigments lutein and zeaxanthin plus the vitamin A-active pigments carotene and cryptoxanthin, contains a little vitamin A; white corn has very little. One fresh ear of yellow corn, 5.5– 6.5 inches long, has three grams dietar y fiber, one gram fat (0.1 g saturated fat, 0.3 g monounsaturated fat, 0.4 mg polyunsaturated fat), 137 IU vitamin A (6 percent of the R DA for a woman, 5 percent of the R DA for a man), 34 mcg folate (9 percent of the R DA), and 5 mg vitamin C (7 percent of the R DA for a woman, 6 percent of the R DA for a man). * The most plent iful sugar in sweet corn is glucose; hydrolysis (chemical splitt ing) of corn starch is t he principal indust rial source of glucose. Since glucose is less sweet t han sucrose, sucrose and fructose are added to commercial corn syrup to make it sweeter.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food With beans (which are rich in lysine) or milk (which is rich in lysine and tryptophan), to complement the proteins in corn. With meat or a food rich in vitamin C, to make the iron in corn more useful.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-fiber diet

Buying This Food Look for: Cobs that feel cool or are stored in a refrigerated bin. Keeping corn cool helps retain its vitamin C and slows the natural conversion of the corn’s sugars to starch. Choose fresh corn with medium-sized kernels that yield slightly when you press them with your fingertip. Very small kernels are immature; very large ones are older and will taste starchy rather than sweet. Both yellow and white kernels may be equally tasty, but the husk of the corn should always be moist and green. A dry yellowish husk means that the corn is old enough for the chlorophyll pigments in the husk to have faded, letting the carotenes underneath show through.

Storing This Food Refrigerate fresh corn. At room temperature, fresh-picked sweet corn will convert nearly half its sugar to starch within 24 hours and lose half its vitamin C in four days. In the refrigera- tor, it may keep all its vitamin C for up to a week and may retain its sweet taste for as long as ten days.

Preparing This Food Strip off the husks and silk, and brush with a vegetable brush to get rid of clinging silky threads. R inse the corn briefly under running water, and plunge into boiling water for four to six minutes, depending on the size of the corn.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Heat denatures (breaks apart) the long-chain protein molecules in the liquid inside the corn kernel, allowing them to form a network of protein molecules that will squeeze out moisture and turn rubbery if you cook the corn too long. Heat also allows the starch granules inside the kernel to absorb water so that they swell and eventually rupture, releasing the nutrients inside. When you cook corn, the trick is to cook it just long enough to rupture its starch granules while keeping its protein molecules from turning tough and chewy. Cooking fresh corn for several minutes in boiling water may destroy at least half of its vitamin C. At Cornell University, food scientists found that cooking fresh corn in the microwave oven (two ears/without water if very fresh/4 minutes/600 –700 watts) preserves most of the vitamin C.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Canning and freezing. Canned corn and frozen corn both have less vitamin C than fresh- cooked corn. The vitamin is lost when the corn is heated during canning or blanched before freezing to destroy the natural enzymes that would otherwise continue to ripen it. Blanch- ing in a microwave oven rather than in boiling water can preserve the vitamin C in frozen corn (see above). Milling. Milling removes the hull and germ from the corn kernel, leaving what is called hominy. Hominy, which is sometimes soaked in wood ash (lye) to increase its calcium con- tent, can be dried and used as a cereal (grits) or ground into corn flour. Coarsely ground corn flour is called cornmeal. Processed corn cereals. All processed, ready-to-eat corn cereals are much higher in sodium and sugar than fresh corn. Added calcium carbonate. Pellagra is a niacin-deficiency disease that occurs most com- monly among people for whom corn is the staple food in a diet lacking protein foods with the essential amino acid tryptophan, which can be converted to niacin in the human body. Pellagra is not an inevitable result of a diet high in corn, however, since the niacin in corn can be made more useful by soaking the corn in a solution of calcium carbonate (lime) and water. In Mexico, for example, the corn used to make tortillas is boiled in a dilute solution of calcium carbonate (from shells or limestone) and water, then washed, drained, and ground. The alkaline bath appears to release the bound niacin in corn so that it can be absorbed by the body.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits As a wheat substitute in baking. People who are allergic to wheat or cannot tolerate the glu- ten in wheat flour or wheat cereals can often use corn flour or hominy instead. Bath powder. Corn starch, a fine powder refined from the endosperm (inner part) of the corn kernel, can be used as an inexpensive, unperfumed body or face powder. Because it absorbs oils, it is also used as an ingredient in dry shampoos.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Allergic reaction. According to the Merck Manual, corn is one of the 12 foods most likely to trigger the classic food allergy symptoms: hives, swelling of the lips and eyes, and upset stomach. The others are berries (blackberries, blueberries, raspberries, strawberries), choco- late, eggs, fish, legumes (green peas, lima beans, peanuts, soybeans), milk, nuts, peaches, pork, shellfish, and wheat (see wheat cer ea ls).... corn

Linn. f.

Habitat: Native to China; now grown in Himachal Pradesh, Kumaon, the Nilgiris and West Bengal for edible fruits.

English: Japanese Persimmon.

Ayurvedic: Tinduka (var.).

Action: Hypotensive, hepatopro- tective, antidote to poisons and bacterial toxins. Calyx and peduncle of fruit—used in the treatment of cough and dyspnoea. Roasted seeds—used as a substitute for coffee.

The fruit, in addition to sugars, glucose, fructose, ascorbic acid, citric acid, contains (% of fresh weight) 0.20-1.41 tannins, 0.21-10.07 total pectins, 0.67 pentosans and 0.16-0.25 polyphenols. The fruit also contains 2.4 mg/100 g carotenoids; carotene expressed as vitamin A 2200-2600 IU. The carote- noids identified in the pulp include cryptoxanthine, zeaxanthin, antherax- anthin, lycopene and beta-carotene. (Many carotenoids originally present in the fruit decompose during ripening.

The fruit pulp is an antidote to bacterial toxins and is used in the preparation of a vaccine for pertussis.

Condensed tannins from the fruits effectively inhibited 2-nitrofluorene mutagen.

The immature leaves contain a ster- oidal saponin, lignin and phenolic compounds. Eugenol and dihydroac- tinidiolide are reported from fresh leaves.

The leaves are reported to exhibit hepatoprotective activity. Leaves also contain hypotensive principles. Astra- galin and isoquercitrin have been isolated from leaves.... diospyros kaki

Clarke.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Arunachal Pradesh (Mishmi Hills).

Action: Toxic to CNS.

The extract of the bark and leaves are used as an adulterant of illegal opium and are sold in the black market in certain areas in Indonesia.

The bark contains an iridoid glu- coside, ligstroside, and the phenolic glucosides, syringin and sinapaldehyde glucoside.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: F. excelsior Linn.—Great Britain, Europe and North America. F. hookery—Western Himalaya at 2,700-3,350 m.

English: European Ash, Weeping Ash.

Folk: Kum, Sum, Hum, Sinnun (Punjab, Kashmir).

Action: F. excelsior—laxative, antiinflammatory, febrifuge. The bark and leaves are used for arthritis and rheumatism.

The herb gave coumarin derivatives, including fraxin, fraxetin and fraxinol; flavonoids based on aesculetin, including aescin, also rutin and quercetin. A coumarin derivative is actively diuretic.

A saccharine exudate, manna, consisting principally of mannitol, is obtained by incising the stem barks of some Fraxinus sp. found in India. The manna of commerce is derived from F. ornus. F. hookery (bark)—astringent, febrifuge, bitter tonic. Leaves—cathartic.

Ash Bark is used, in decoction, in the treatment of intermittent fever and ague, as a substitute for Peruvian bark. Also used for treating obstructions of the liver and spleen and in rheumatism and arthritic affections.

Preparations of European Ash Bark showed an analgesic, anti-exudative and antiphlogistic action. (German Commission E.)

Habitat: Indigenous to the coasts of the Mediterranean from Spain to Smyrna.

English: Flake Manna.

Unani: Turanjeen.

Action: A children's laxative. Usually prescribed with other purgatives. (Not to be used in the presence of ileus.)

Key application: In constipation where an easier elimination and a soft stool are desirable; in animents such as anal fissures, haemorrhoids and post-rectal and surgery. (German Commission E.)

The exudation contains 40-90% mannitol, 10-15% stachyose and man- notriose, glucose, fructose.... fraxinus griffithii

Wall.

Synonym: H. orixense (Roxb) Mobb.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: Central India and Western Peninsula.

Ayurvedic: Bhramar-chhalikaa, Ugragandhaa (a confusing synonym). Bhringa-vrksha (provisional synonym).

Siddha/Tamil: Sagappu, Vellei Kadambu, Peranjoli.

Folk: Bhaulan, Bhramarchhali, Bhuurkunda.

Action: Bark—astringent, febrifuge, antiperiodic (especially for tertian ague).

The stem bark contains scopoletin and its apioglucoside, hymexelsin (yield 0.12%). The presence of glucose, fructose, galactose and several amino acids, alanine, arginine, cystine, glycine, leucine; besides fatty acids, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol is also reported from the bark.

Roots contain several quinones.... hymenodictyon excelsum

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate (fresh figs) High (dried figs) Protein: Low Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Very high Sodium: Low (fresh or dried fruit) High (dried fruit treated with sodium sulfur compounds) Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins Major mineral contribution: Iron (dried figs)

About the Nutrients in This Food Figs, whether fresh or dried, are high-carbohydrate food, an extraordinarily good source of dietary fiber, natural sugars, iron, calcium, and potassium. Ninety-two percent of the carbohydrates in dried figs are sugars (42 percent glucose, 31 percent fructose, 0.1 percent sucrose). The rest is dietary fiber, insoluble cellulose in the skin, soluble pectins in fruit. The most important mineral in dried figs is iron. Gram for gram, figs have about 50 percent as much iron as beef liver (0.8 mg/gram vs. 1.9 mg/gram). One medium fresh fig has 1.4 g dietary fiber, six grams sugars, and 0.18 mg iron (1 percent of the R DA for a woman, 2 percent of the R DA for a man). A similar size dried, uncooked fig has 0.8 g fiber, four grams sugars and the same amount of iron as a fresh fig.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Dried (but see How other kinds of processing affect this food, below).

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-fiber, low-residue diets Low-sodium (dried figs treated with sulfites)

Buying This Food Look for: Plump, soft fresh figs whose skin may be green, brown, or purple, depending on the variety. As figs ripen, the pectin in their cell walls dissolves and the figs grow softer to the touch. The largest, best-tasting figs are generally the ones harvested and shipped in late spring and early summer, during June and July. Choose dried figs in tightly sealed airtight packages. Avoid: Fresh figs that smell sour. The odor indicates that the sugars in the fig have fer- mented; such fruit is spoiled.

Storing This Food Refrigerate fresh figs. Dried figs can be stored in the refrigerator or at room temperature; either way, wrap them tightly in an air- and moistureproof container to keep them from los- ing moisture and becoming hard. Dried figs may keep for several months.

Preparing This Food Wash fresh figs under cool water; use dried figs right out of the package. If you want to slice the dried figs, chill them first in the refrigerator or freezer: cold figs slice clean.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Fresh figs contain ficin, a proteolytic (protein-breaking) enzyme similar to papain in papayas and bromelin in fresh pineapple. Proteolytic enzymes split long-chain protein molecules into smaller units, which is why they help tenderize meat. Ficin is most effective at about 140 –160°F, the temperature at which stews simmer, and it will continue to work after you take the stew off the stove until the food cools down. Temperatures higher than 160°F inac- tivate ficin; canned figs—which have been exposed to very high heat in processing—will not tenderize meat. Both fresh and dried figs contain pectin, which dissolves when you cook the figs, mak- ing them softer. Dried figs also absorb water and swell.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Drying. Figs contain polyphenoloxidase, an enzyme that hastens the oxidation of phenols in the fig, creating brownish compounds that darken its flesh. To prevent this reaction, figs may be treated with a sulfur compound such as sulfur dioxide or sodium sulfite. People who are sensitive to sulfites may suffer serious allergic reactions, including potentially fatal ana- phylactic shock, if they eat figs that have been treated with one of these compounds. Canning. Canned figs contain slightly less vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin than fresh figs, and no active ficin.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Iron supplementation. Dried figs are an excellent source of iron. As a laxative. Figs are a good source of the indigestible food fiber lignin. Cells whose walls are highly lignified retain water and, since they are impossible to digest, help bulk up the stool. In addition, ficin has some laxative effects. Together, the lignin and the ficin make figs (particularly dried figs) an efficient laxative food. Lower risk of stroke. Potassium lowers blood pressure. According to new data from the Harvard University Health Professionals Study, a long-running survey of male doctors, a diet rich in high-potassium foods such as bananas may also reduce the risk of stroke. The men who ate the most potassium-rich foods (an average nine servings a day) had 38 percent fewer strokes than men who ate the least (less than four servings a day).

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Sulfite allergies. See How other kinds of processing affect this food.

Food/Drug Interactions MAO inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase (M AO) inhibitors are drugs used as antidepressants or antihypertensives. They inhibit the action of natural enzymes that break down tyramine, a nitrogen compound formed when proteins are metabolized, so it can be eliminated from the body. Tyramine is a pressor amine, a chemical that constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. If you eat a food rich in one of these chemicals while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, the pressor amines cannot be eliminated from your body, and the result may be a hypertensive crisis (sustained elevated blood pressure). There has been one report of such a reaction in a patient who ate canned figs while taking an M AO inhibitor.... figs

J. F. Gmel.

Madhuca butyracea Macr.

Synonym: Aisandra butyracea (Roxb.) Baehni.

Family: Sapotaceae.

Habitat: Found in sub-Himalayan tract from Kumaon to Bhutan.

Ayurvedic: Madhuuka (related species).

Synonym: M. longifolia (Koen.) Macb. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Cheval. Bassia latifolia Roxb.

Family: Sapotaceae.

Habitat: A large tree, cultivated mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.

English: Mahua tree, Moha.

Ayurvedic: Madhuuka, Madhu- pushpa, Madhusrav, Gudapushpa.

Unani: Mahuaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Ieluppai.

Action: Flowers—stimulant, demulcent, laxative, anthelmintic, bechic. Seed oil—galactogenic, anticephalgic, emetic. Used in pneumonia, skin diseases, piles. Bark—astringent, emollient. Used for tonsilitis, gum troubles, diabetes, ulcers. Bark, seed oil and gum— antirheumatic.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the flower without stalk or calyx in asthma and pthisis.

The fruit pulp yielded a number of triterpenoids (including alpha- and beta-amyrin acetate); also n-hexaco- sanol, beta-D-glucoside of beta-sitos- terol and free sitosterol.

Nut shell gave beta-sitosterol gluco- side, quercetin and dihydroquercetin.

The carollas are rich source of sugars, vitamins, phosphorus, calcium and iron; magnesium and copper are also present. The sugars identified are sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, ara- binose and rhamnose.

The seeds yielded saponins—2,3- di-O-glucopyranoside of bassic acid (saponin A and saponin B). Mixture of saponins from seeds exhibits spermi- cidal activity.

Trunkbarkcontainedlupeol acetate, beta-amyrin acetate, alpha-spinasterol, erythrodiol monocaprylate, betulinic acid and oleanolic acid caprylates.

Dosage: Flower—10-15 g (API, Vol. II.); flower-juice—10-20 ml; bark— 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... madhuca indica

Mill.

Synonym: M. domestica Borkh. M. sylvestris Hort. non-Mill. Pyrus malus Linn. in part.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe and West Asia; now cultivated in Himachal Pradesh., Kashmir, Kulu, Kumaon, Assam and in the Nilgiris.

English: Cultivated Apple.

Ayurvedic: Sinchitikaa.

Folk: Seb, Sev.

Action: Bark—anthelmintic, refrigerant, hypnotic, given in intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers. Leaves—inhibit the growth of a number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

The fruit contains malic (90-95% of the total acids), citric, lactic and succinic acids; (unripe fruit contains quinic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid); caffeic acid derivatives, pectins, minerals and vitamins.

Edible portion of fresh apple contains thiamine 0.12, riboflavin 0.03, niacin 0.2 and ascorbic acid 2 mg/100 g. The ascorbic acid content varies widely and values up to 40 mg/100 g. Sugars constitute about 80% of the total carbohydrates of ripe fruits—fructose (60), glucose (25) and sucrose (15%). The pectin content of the edible portion varies from 0.14 to 0.96% (as calcium pectate). The uronic acid content of apple pectin varies from 0.5 to 15%.

The astringent principles of apple include tannins, tannin derivatives and colouring materials (flavones). The browning of apple slices on exposure to air is due to enzymic oxidation of tannin compounds.

Fresh juice contains 0.20-0.80 malic acid, 11.6 total sugars and 0.02100.080% tannin.

The seeds contain cyanogenic gly- coside, amygdalin (0.62-1.38%, HCN equivalent, 0.037-00.087%).... malus pumila

A collection of disorders in which some part of the body’s internal chemistry (see METABOLISM; CATABOLISM) is disrupted. Some of these disorders arise from inherited de?ciencies in which a speci?c ENZYME is absent or abnormal, or does not function properly. Other metabolic disorders occur because of malfunctions in the endocrine system (see ENDOCRINE GLANDS). There may be over- or underproduction of a hormone involved in the control of metabolic activities: a prime example is DIABETES MELLITUS – a disorder of sugar metabolism; others include CUSHING’S SYNDROME; hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF); and insulinoma (an insulin-producing tumour of the pancreas). The bones can be affected by metabolic disorders such as osteoporosis, osteomalacia (rickets) and Paget’s disease (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF). PORPHYRIAS, HYPERLIPIDAEMIA, HYPERCALCAEMIA and gout are other examples of disordered metabolism.

There are also more than 200 identi?ed disorders described as inborn errors of metabolism. Some cause few problems; others are serious threats to an individual’s life. Individual disorders are, fortunately, rare – probably one child in 10,000 or 100,000; overall these inborn errors affect around one child in 1,000. Examples include GALACTOSAEMIA, PHENYLKETONURIA, porphyrias, TAY SACHS DISEASE and varieties of mucopolysaccharidosis, HOMOCYSTINURIA and hereditary fructose (a type of sugar) intolerance.... metabolic disorders

Hunter non-Blume.

Synonym: P. retrofractum Vahl. P. officinarum DC.

Family: Piperaceae.

Habitat: Native to Moluccas, cultivated in Indonesia, also in India.

English: Java Long Pepper.

Ayurvedic: Gajapippali (spikes of Scindapsis officinalis, Araceae, are also known as Gajapippali), Chavya, Chavika.

Siddha/Tamil: Chevuyam.

Action: Similar to P. longum and P. nigrum. Fruits—stimulant, carminative; used in haemorrhoidal affections; as a tonic, after- childbirth. Roots—chewed or brewed in decoction for colic, dyspepsia and gastralgia.

Key application: In diseases of the spleen, chlorosis, diseases of the abdomen. colic, worm infestation. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)

Java long pepper is similar in composition to black pepper; it contains less piperine and volatile oil (piperine 4.5 and volatile oil 1.5%).

The stem is used as a substitute for Piper longum root. It contains the alkaloids piperine and piplartine. Beta- sitosterol, glycosides, glucose and fructose and mucilage have also been reported. Active principles show muscle relaxant property.... piper chaba

Linn.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: Native to Eurasia; cultivated in Kashmir, Kumaon and Himachal Pradesh.

English: Sweet Cherry.

Ayurvedic: Elavaaluka, Elaya, Harivaaluka.

Folk: Gilaas, Krusbal.

Action: Fruit stalks—diuretic, antiinflammatory, astringent, used for oedema, inflammation of urinary tract, cystitis, nephritis, urinary retention.

The stems contain salicylic acid, organic acids tannins and potassium salts. Protocatechuic, p-coumaric, fer- ulic and diferculic acids have been identified in the shoots.

The fruit contains salicylates and cyanogenic glycosides, and vitamin A, B1 and C. Sugars consist mainly of glucose and fructose, with sucrose as a minor component. Malic acid is the principal acid, small amounts of citric, tartaric and succinic acids are also reported. The lipids of the fruit pulp contain cis-vaccenic acid.

The acetone extract of peduncle gave an isoflavone, prunetin, which on hydrolysis yielded an aglycone identified as prunetin and sugar as glucose.

The seeds contain a cyanogenic gly- coside and are toxic. The bark contains tannins up to 16%.

Dosage: Seed—3-5 g powder. (CCRAS.)... prunus avium

Linn.

Family: Grossulariaceae.

Habitat: Cold temperate regions extending from Himalayas to northern Asia and Europe.

English: European Black Currant.

Folk: Nabar.

Action: Dried leaves and twigs— a home remedy for coughs. Leaves—diuretic, hypotensive, refrigerant. An infusion is used for inflammatory conditions, sore throat, hoarseness. Fruits— refrigerant, mildly spasmolytic, vasoprotective, anti-inflammatory.

Black currents are very rich in vitamin C (average 150 mg/100g) and contain 0.9-1.7% pectin as calcium pec- tate, also minerals, potassium (372 mg/ 100 g). The acidity of the fruit is mainly due to citric acid; malic acid is present in small amounts. Glucose and fructose are principal sugars; sucrose is a minor component.

The flavonoids in the fruits include kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin. About 0.3% anthocyanosides, concentrated mainly in the skin, consist of glycosides of cyanidol and delphinidol.

The anthocyanosides are reportedly bacteriostatic and exhibit vasopro- tective and anti-inflammatory activity. They are antisecretory against cholera toxin-induced intestinal fluid secretion in vitro.

The leaves contain an anti-inflammatory principle, pycnometol and minute quantities of an essential oil composed mostly of terpenes.

Polyphenolic extract of buds inhibited lipid peroxidation by rat liver mi- crosomes.

Polyphenols present in R. nigrum and R. rubrum (Red Current, Western Himalayas from Kumaon to Kashmir) exhibit free radical scavenging activity. The seed oil lowers VLDL and total cholesterol.

Contraindicated in bleeding disorders. (Sharon M. Herr.)... ribes nigrum

(D. Don) Baillon.

Synonym: R. elegans Wall. ex Benth. R. calycina (Roxb.) Briq.

Family: Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Himalaya from Kashmir to Nepal, at 1,200-3,700 m.

Folk: Patkarru; Titpaati, Karanoi, Karui (Kumaon); Kaur, Kauri (Punjab).

Action: Leaves—a decoction is used as a bitter tonic and febrifuge; also as a tonic in contusions. The leaves contain betulin, beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, stigmasterol, cetyl alcohol, glucose, fructose, arabinose and palmitic, stearic, oleic, gallic, oxalic and tartaric acids. The leaves and stems contain the diterpenes, calyenone, precalyone and calyone, and a triterpene, moronic acid. Precalyone exhibited antitumour activity against P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia.

Aerial parts exhibited spasmolytic and CNS-depressant activity.... roylea cinerea

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab.

English: Sugarcane, Noble Cane.

Ayurvedic: Ikshu, Dirgha-chhada, Bhuurirasa, Morata, Asipatra, Madhutrna, Gudamuula, Trnarasa.

Unani: Gannaa, Naishakar.

Siddha/Tamil: Karumbu, Nanal.

Action: Cane Juice—restorative, cooling, laxative, demulcent, diuretic, antiseptic. Used in general debility, haemophilic conditions, jaundice and urinary diseases.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the juice of the stem in haemorrhagic diseases and anuria; and the root in dysuria.

Sugarcane juice contains surcose (70-80% of soluble solids in the juice), glucose and fructose. Non-sugar constituents present in the cane juice are carbohydrates other than sugars. As- paragine and glutamine are prominent amino acids in the juice. Other amino acids include alanine, gamma- amino butyric acid, aspartic and glutamic acids, glycine, leucine, lysine, serine and tyrosine. The presence of phenylalanine, histidine, valine, proline, threonine and arginine, pipecolic acid, methionine and tryptophan has also been reported.

Aconitic acid constitutes about three-fourths of the total carboxylic acid present in the juice.

Vitamins present in the juice are: thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, and vitamin D; enzymes include diastase, invertase, lac- tase, peroxidase, tyrosinase.

Phenols in the cane juice are mainly polyphenols from tannin and antho- cyanin from the rind.

Cane juice contains glycolic acid which improves skin complexion as it has antiwrinkle effect, prevents scaly growth and increases natural collagen and elastin in the skin.

Enzymes present in the seeds include large quantities of diastase and invertase.

An ester, vanilloyl-l-O-beta-D-glu- coside, has been isolated from the bagasse.

The leaves contain alpha-amylase and glutathione-S-transferase.

Dosage: Stem—200-400 ml juice; rootstock—15-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. IV.)... saccharum officinarum

Spreng. ex DC.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Foot Hills of Eastern Himalayas and in Aka and Laushai Hills.

Folk: Ganga-muula (Assam).

Action: Root—juice is prescribed in gynaecological diseases.

Family: Compositae, Asteraceae.

Habitat: Himalayas from Garhwal to Sikkim at 4,200-5,100 m.

Folk: Phen-kamal, Jogi Paashaa, Hiyun Kauni.

Action: Plant, root—a decoction is prescribed in gynaecological diseases.

The plant afforded beta-sitosterol, 3- stigmastanol, stigmast-7-en-3-ol and ergostan-3,24-diol. The aerial parts of the plant collected from Himalayas gave heptacosane, hentriacontane, no- nacosane, alpha- andbeta-amyrins and their acetates and palmitates, lupeol, its acetate, fructose, glucose and surcose.... saussurea affinis

Schott.

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: Tropical Himalayas, Bengal, southwards to Andhra Pradesh and the Andamans.

Ayurvedic: Gajakrishna, Hastipip- pali, Gajapippali (also equated with Piper chaba).

Siddha/Tamil: Anaitippili.

Action: Fruits—stimulant, carminative, diaphoretic, anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal. Decoction is used as an expectorant in asthma. Fruits and shoots—hypoglycaemic. Fruit pulp—applied externally in rheumatism.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends dried pieces of mature female spadix in dyspnoea. (Gajapip- pali is wrongly equated with male or female inflorescence of Borassus flabel- lifer Linn.)

The fruits contain two glycosidic substances—scindapsin A and B, which on hydrolysis yield the aglu- cons, scindapsinidine A and B. Free sugars, rhamnose, fructose, glucose and xylose together with some di-and trisaccharides have been identified in the plant.

Dosage: Dried pieces of mature female spadix—2-3 g for infusion. (API, Vol. II.)... scindapsus officinalis

(Linn.) Skeels.

Synonym: S. jambolanum (Lam.) DC. Eugenia jambolana Lam.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India up to 1,800 m.

English: Java Plum, Jambolan, Black Plum.

Ayurvedic: Jambu, Mahaaphalaa, Phalendraa, Surabhipatra. (Fruit— black.)

Unani: Jaamun

Siddha/Tamil: Naaval.

Action: Fruit—stomachic, carminative, diuretic. Bark and seed— antidiarrhoeal. Seed—hypo- glycaemic. Leaf—antibacterial, antidysenteric.

Key application: Bark—in nonspecific acute diarrhoea and in topical therapy for mild inflammation of the oral-pharyngeal mucosa; externally in mild, superficial inflammation of the skin. (German Commission E.) The seed has been included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E, as the blood sugar-lowering effect could not be established by several researchers. Claimed applications mentioned in German Commission E monograph: in diabetes, also in combination preparations for atonic and spastic constipation, diseases of the pancreas, gastric and pancreatic complaints.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the bark in acute diarrhoea and haemorrhagic diseases; the seed in hyperglycaemia and polyuria.

The aqueous alcoholic extract of the bark contains bergenin, gallic acid and ethyl gallate.

The fruit contains anthocyanins and yielded citric, malic and gallic acids. Gallic acid and tannins account for as- tringency of the fruit. Malic acid is the major acid (0.59%) of the weight of fruit; a small quantity of oxalic acid is reported to be present. Glucose and fructose are principal sugars in the ripe fruit; surcose was not detected.

The seeds contain tannin (about 19%), ellagic acid, gallic acid (1-2%), beta-sitosterol, 0.05% essential oil; myricyl alcohol is present in the un- saponifiable matter.

The stem bark yielded friedelan-3- alpha-ol, kaempferol, quercetin, beta- sitosterol and its glycoside, kaempferol- 3-O-glucoside, gallic acid, friedelin and betulinic acid. It contained eugenin and epi-friedelanol. 10-12% tannins were reported.

The leaves contain aliphatic alcohols, sitosterols, betulinic acid and crategolic (maslinic) acid.

The flowers contain triterpenic acids—oleanolic acid and crategolic acid. The oleanolic acid is a strong protector against adriamycin-induced lipid peroxidation in liver and heart microsomes.

Phenols, including methylxantho- xylin and 2, 6-dihydroxy-4-methoxy- acetophene have been isolated from the plant (also from the seed).

Seeds in a dose of 10 mg/kg p.o. on normal and alloxanized rabbits exhibited hypoglycaemic activity up to 23 and 20% respectively. The chloroform fraction of seed extract exhibited potent anti-inflammatory action against both exudative and prolifer- ative and chronic phases of inflammation, besides exhibiting significant anti-arthritic, antipyretic and analgesic activities. Water extract exhibited antibacterial property against S. boydi and S. dysentrae in cases of dysentery and diarrhoea.

The bark extract is reported to have an effect on glycogenolysis and glyco- gen storage in animals.

Dosage: Stem bark—10-20 g for decoction; dried seed—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... syzygium cuminii

Linn.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at 1,500-3,500 m.

English: Coughwort, Coltsfoot, Asses' Foot.

Unani: Fanjiyun.

Action: Leaves and flowers— anticatarrhal, antitussive, expectorant, antispasmodic, demulcent, anti-inflammatory. Used for dry, unproductive, irritative cough, smoker's cough, whooping cough, bronchial asthma (effect shortlived), laryngitis.

Key application: In acute catarrh of the respiratory tract with cough and hoarseness; acute, mild inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. Contraindicated during pregnancy and nursing. (German Commission E.)

The leaves and flowers contain flavo- noids including rutin, hyperoside and isoquercetin; pyrrolizidine alkaloids including senkirkine and tussilagine (about 0.015%); mucilage (about 8%) consisting of polysaccharides based on glucose, galactose, fructose, arabinose and xylose; inulin, tannins.

Polysaccharides are antiinflammatory and immuno-stimulating, as well as demulcent. Flavonoids also have anti-inflammatory and antispasmod- ic action. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids have caused hepatotoxicity in rats fed daily on high doses, but not on daily low dose regimes. These are largely destroyed when the herb is boiled.

The leaf contains an inhibitor of platelet activating factor (PAF). The PAF inhibitor can account for Coltsfoot's efficacy in asthma. The constituent, tussilagone has respiratory stimulant and cardiovascular (including pressor) activities. In animal studies, Coltsfoot is reported to have a pres- soreffect similartodopaminebut without tachyphylasis. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)... tussilago farfara

Roxb.

Synonym: V. divaricata Benth & Hook. f., in part.

Tricholepis procumbens Wight. Amberboa divaricata Kuntge.

Family: Compositae.

Habitat: All over India, except West Bengal and eastwards.

Unani: Baadaavard, Al-baavard, Shukaayi.

Folk: Bhu-dandi, Sukaayi (Maharashtra).

Action: Plant—deobstruent, aperient, febrifugal, styptic. Used for disorders of the liver. The mucilage is used in coughs.

The plant yielded a glucoside pro- cumbenin A which yields an aglycone procumbenidine and glucose on hydrolysis. Fructose, surcose, lactose and maltose are also present in the plant.

Shukaayi of Unani medicine is also known as Al-shukaayaa, Al-shaukat- ul-arabia and Arabian Thorn. The fruit and root are used in Unani medicine in chronic fevers and diseases of liver and intestines.

Baadaavard has also been equated with Tricholepisprocumbens Wight and Carduus bendictus. Tricholepis sp. are known as Brahmadandi in Ayurvedic medicine. Carduus nutans Linn. is known as Gul-Baadaavard in Kashmir and is used as febrifuge.... volutarella ramosa

A group of compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which supply the body with its main source of energy. Carbohydrates are found in fruits, cereals, and root crops and fall into 2 groups. These are available carbohydrates, which are metabolized into glucose for the body’s use, and unavailable carbohydrates, such as cellulose, which cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes and make up the bulk of dietary fibre (see fibre, dietary).

Available carbohydrates are predominantly starches (complex carbohydrates) and sugars (simple carbohydrates). In carbohydrate metabolism, the monosaccharides (simple sugars) glucose (grape sugar), galactose (a milk sugar), and fructose (fruit sugar) are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged. The disaccharides (double sugars) sucrose, maltose and lactose (a milk sugar) are broken down into simple sugars before they are absorbed. Starches also have to be broken down into simple sugars.

Some glucose is burned up immediately (see metabolism) in order to generate energy for cells, such as brain cells, that need a constant supply. Galactose and fructose have to be converted to glucose in the liver before they can be used by body cells. Surplus glucose is conveyed to the liver, muscles, and fat cells where it is converted into glycogen and fat for storage. When blood glucose levels are high, glucose storage is stimulated by insulin, a hormone that is secreted by the pancreas. When the blood glucose level becomes low, insulin secretion diminishes and glucagon, which is another hormone produced by the pancreas, stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen to glucose for release into the bloodstream. Although fat cannot be converted to glucose, it can be burned as a fuel in order to conserve glucose. In the disorder diabetes mellitus, carbohydrate metabolism is disturbed by a deficiency of insulin.... carbohydrates