A collective term for the brain, spinal cord, their nerves, and the sensory end organs. More broadly, this can even include the neurotransmitting hormones instigated by the CNS that control the chemical nervous system, the endocrine glands.... central nervous system

The state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health has many dimensions (anatomical, physiological and mental) and is largely culturally defined.... health

A centre that may carry out promotive, protective, preventive, diagnostic, curative and rehabilitative health care activities for ambulant people.... health centre

See IMMUNITY.

Age Disease and mode of administration

3 days BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin) by injection if tuberculosis in family in past 6 months.

2 months Poliomyelitis (oral); adsorbed diphtheria, whooping-cough (pertussis)1 and tetanus2 (triple vaccine given by injection); HiB injection.3

3 months Poliomyelitis (oral); diphtheria, whooping-cough (pertussis)1 and tetanus2 (triple vaccine given by injection); HiB injection.3

4 months Poliomyelitis (oral); diphtheria, whooping-cough (pertussis)1 and tetanus2 (triple vaccine given by injection); HiB injection.3

12–18 months Measles, mumps, and rubella (German measles)4 (given together live by injection).

(SCHOOL ENTRY)

4–5 years Poliomyelitis (oral); adsorbed diphtheria and tetanus (given together by injection); give MMR vaccine if not already given at 12–18 months.

10–14 females Rubella (by injection) if they have missed MMR.

10–14 BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin) by injection to tuberculin-negative children to prevent tuberculosis.

15–18 Poliomyelitis single booster dose (oral); tetanus (by injection).

1 Pertussis may be excluded in certain susceptible individuals.

2 Known as DPT or triple vaccine.

3 Haemophilus in?uenzae immunisation (type B) is being introduced to be given at same time, but di?erent limb.

4 Known as MMR vaccine. (Some parents are asking to have their infants immunised with single-constituent vaccines because of controversy over possible side-effects – yet to be con?rmed scienti?cally – of the combined MMR vaccine.)

Recommended immunisation schedules in the United Kingdom... immune system

A functional, not physical, system in the brain, generally considered to mediate emotions with metabolism.... limbic system

This extensive, complex and ?nely tuned network of billions of specialised cells called neurones (see NEURON(E)) is responsible for maintaining the body’s contacts with and responses to the outside world. The network also provides internal communication links – in concert with HORMONES, the body’s chemical messengers – between the body’s diverse organs and tissues, and, importantly, the BRAIN stores relevant information as memory. Each neurone has a ?lamentous process of varying length called an AXON along which passes messages in the form of electrochemically generated impulses. Axons are bundled together to form nerves (see NERVE).

The nervous system can be likened to a computer. The central processing unit – which receives, processes and stores information and initiates instructions for bodily activities – is called the central nervous system: this is made up of the brain and SPINAL CORD. The peripheral nervous system – synonymous with the cables that transmit information to and from a computer’s processing unit – has two parts: sensory and motor. The former collects information from the body’s many sense organs. These respond to touch, temperature, pain, position, smells, sounds and visual images and the information is signalled to the brain via the sensory nerves. When information has been processed centrally, the brain and spinal cord send instructions for action via motor nerves to the ‘voluntary’ muscles controlling movements and speech, to the ‘involuntary’ muscles that operate the internal organs such as the heart and intestines, and to the various glands, including the sweat glands in the skin. (Details of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and the 31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord are given in respective texts on brain and spinal cord.)

Functional divisions of nervous system As well as the nervous system’s anatomical divisions, the system is divided functionally, into autonomic and somatic parts. The autonomic nervous system, which is split into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, deals with the automatic or unconscious control of internal bodily activities such as heartbeat, muscular status of blood vessels, digestion and glandular functions. The somatic system is responsible for the skeletal (voluntary) muscles (see MUSCLE) which carry out intended movements initiated by the brain – for example, the activation of limbs, tongue, vocal cords (speech), anal muscles (defaecation), urethral sphincters (urination) or vaginal muscles (childbirth). In addition, many survival responses – the most powerfully instinctive animal drives, which range from avoiding danger and pain to shivering when cold or sweating when hot – are initiated unconsciously and automatically by the nervous system using the appropriate neural pathways to achieve the particular survival reaction required.

The complex functions of the nervous system include the ability to experience emotions, such as excitement and pleasure, anxiety and frustration, and to undertake intellectual activities. For these experiences an individual can utilise many built-in neurological programmes and he or she can enhance performance through learning – a vital human function that depends on MEMORY, a three stage-process in the brain of registration, storage and recall. The various anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system that have been unravelled as science has strived to explain how it works may seem confusing. In practical terms, the nervous system works mainly by using automatic or relex reactions (see REFLEX ACTION) to various stimuli (described above), supplemented by voluntary actions triggered by the activity of the conscious (higher) areas of the brain. Some higher functions crucial to human activity – for example, visual perception, thought, memory and speech – are complex and subtle, and the mechanisms are not yet fully understood. But all these complex activities rest on the foundation of relatively simple electrochemical transmissions of impulses through the massive network of billions of specialised cells, the neurones.... nervous system

All the organs and tissues associated with the act of RESPIRATION or breathing. The term includes the nasal cavity (see NOSE) and PHARYNX, along with the LARYNX, TRACHEA, bronchi (see BRONCHUS), BRONCHIOLES and LUNGS. The DIAPHRAGM and other muscles, such as those between the RIBS, are also part of the respiratory system which is responsible for oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it.... respiratory system

Involving the whole body or organism, and not just individual parts.... systemic

See COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE (CAM).... alternative medicine

Part of the nervous system which regulates the bodily functions that are not under conscious control: these include the heartbeat, intestinal movements, salivation, sweating, etc. The autonomic nervous system consists of two main divisions – the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and the PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. The smooth muscles, heart and most glands are connected to nerve ?bres from both systems and their proper functioning depends on the balance between these two. (See also NERVES; NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... autonomic nervous system

The combination of sciences, skills and beliefs directed towards the maintenance and improvement of the health of all the people through collective or social actions. The programmes, services and institutions involved emphasize the prevention of disease and the health needs of the population as a whole. Community health activities change with changing technology and social values, but the goals remain the same.... community health

This is a complex part of the nervous system, extending from the cortex to the medulla in the BRAIN, from which emerge descending spinal pathways which in?uence voluntary motor activity throughout the body. Although the normal functions of the system are poorly understood, there are characteristic signs of an extrapyramidal LESION. These include disturbance of voluntary movements, notably slowness and ‘poverty’ of movement; disturbance of muscular tone, which may be increased or decreased; and involuntary movements, such as a tremor, irregular jerking movements, or slow writhing movements.

Diseases There are several diseases that result from lesions to the extrapyramidal system, of which the most common is PARKINSONISM. Others include WILSON’S DISEASE, KERNICTERUS, CHOREA and ATHETOSIS.... extrapyramidal system

Constructed communication of knowledge to improve health literacy and improve skills in order to advance individual and community health.... health education

Any combination of health education and related organizational, political and economic interventions designed to facilitate behavioural and environmental adaptations that will improve or protect health.... health promotion

A detailed review and evaluation of selected clinical records by qualified professional personnel for the purpose of evaluating the quality of medical care.... medical audit

See NERVOUS SYSTEM.... peripheral nervous system

The approach to health that is concerned with the health of the community as a whole. The three core public health functions are: the assessment and monitoring of the health of communities and populations at risk to identify health problems and priorities; the formulation of public policies designed to solve identified local and national health problems and priorities; and ensuring that all populations have access to appropriate and cost-effective care, including health promotion and disease prevention services, and evaluation of the effectiveness of that care. See “community health”.... public health

A network of interdependent components that work together to attain the goals of the complex whole.... system

Part of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. It consists of scattered collections of grey matter known as ganglia, united by an irregular network of nerve-?bres; those portions where the ganglia are placed most closely and where the network of ?bres is especially dense being known as plexuses. The chief part of the sympathetic system consists of two ganglionated cords that run through the neck, chest, and abdomen, lying close in front of the spine. In conjunction with the other part of the autonomic nervous system – the parasympathetic – this part controls many of the body’s involuntary activities involving glands, organs and other tissues. (For further details, see NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... sympathetic nervous system

Lymph is the same fluid which oozes from a cut when bleeding stops. It surrounds every living cell. Lymph conveys to the blood the final products of digestion of food. It also receives from the blood waste products of metabolism. This is a two-way traffic.

Lymph fluid, loaded with waste, excess protein, etc, is sucked into the lymph tubes to be filtered by the spleen and the lymph nodes. The tubes are filled with countless one-way valves referred to collectively as the lymphatic pump, which propels the flow of lymph forwards. Lymph ultimately is collected in the main thoracic duct rising upwards in front of the spine to enter the bloodstream at the base of the neck.

A number of disorders may arise when the fluid becomes over-burdened by toxaemia, poor drainage and enlarged nodes (glands). Such un-eliminated wastes form cellulite – unwanted tissue formation and swelling. Thus, the soil may be prepared for various chronic illnesses from glandular disorders to arthritis. If the lymph is circulating freely it is almost impossible to become sick.

This system is capable of ingesting foreign particles and building up an immunity against future infection. Some herbal Lymphatics are also antimicrobials, natural alternatives to conventional antibiotics.

Treatment. Clivers is particularly relative to glandular swellings of neck and axillae.

For active inflammation: Echinacea, Goldenseal, Ginseng (Panax).

Alternatives. Teas: Clivers, Red Clover, Agnus Castus herb, Bladderwrack, Violet leaves, Marigold petals.

Decoctions: Blue Flag, Echinacea, Fenugreek seeds, Saw Palmetto.

Tablets/capsules. Agnus Castus, Echinacea, Bladderwrack, Red Clover, Thuja, Poke root, Fenugreek. Formula No 1. Echinacea 2; Clivers 1; Burdock 1; Poke root half. Dose: Liquid Extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.

Formula No 2. Equal parts: Blue Flag root, Poke root, Senna. Dose: as above.

Topical. Poultices: Slippery Elm, Fenugreek seeds, Marshmallow. Horsechestnut (Aesculus) ointment. ... lymphatic system

This refers to the whole circulatory system: the heart, the systemic circulation (the arteries and veins of the body) and the pulmonary circulation (the arteries and veins of the lungs). Blood circulates throughout the cardiovascular system bringing oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other waste products.... cardiovascular system

Services provided to individuals or communities by health service providers for the purpose of promoting, maintaining, monitoring or restoring health.... health care

This is a structured, multi-disciplinary process for assessing and improving the health consequences of projects and policies in the non-health sector. It combines a range of qualitative and quantitative evidence in preparing conclusions. Applications of the assessments include appraisal of national policies, local urban planning, and the progress of transport, water and agricultural projects.... health impact assessment

A systematic procedure for determining the nature and extent of problems experienced by a specified population that affect their health, either directly or indirectly. Needs assessment makes use of epidemiological, sociodemographic and qualitative methods to describe health problems and their environmental, social, economic and behavioural determinants. See also “geriatric assessment”.... health needs assessment

The major histocompatibility complex, or human leucocyte antigen (HLA) region, consists of genetically determined antigens, situated on chromosome 6. Found in most tissues, though to a di?ering extent, the four gene loci are known as A, B, C, D, while the individual alleles at each locus are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. The number of possible combinations is thus enormous, and the chance of two unrelated people being identical for HLA is very low.

HLA incompatibility causes the immune response, or rejection reaction, that occurs with unmatched tissue grafts. Strong associations between HLA and susceptibility to certain diseases – notably the AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERS such as rheumatoid arthritis, insulin-dependent diabetes, and thyrotoxicosis – have been described. Certain HLA antigens occur together more frequently than would be expected by chance (linkage disequilibrium), and may have a protective e?ect, conferring resistance to a disease. (See IMMUNITY.)... hla system

A file kept for each patient, maintained by the hospital (medical practitioners also maintain medical records in their own practices), which documents the patient’s problems, diagnostic procedures, treatment and outcome. Related documents, such as written consent for surgery and other procedures, are also included in the record. In addition to facts about a patient’s illness, medical records nearly always contain other information such as clinical, demographic, sociocultural, sociological, economic, administrative and behavioural data. The record may be on paper or computerized.... medical record

Under the strict legal de?nition, negligence must involve proving a clearly established duty of care which has been breached in a way that has resulted in injury or harm to the recipient of care. There does not need to be any malicious intention. Whether or not a particular injury can be attributed to medical negligence, or must simply be accepted as a reasonable risk of the particular treatment, depends upon an assessment of whether the doctor has fallen below the standard expected of practitioners in the particular specialty. A defence to such a claim is that a respected body of practitioners would have acted in the same way (even though the majority might not) and in doing so would have acted logically.... medical negligence

A statutory body in the United Kingdom that promotes the balanced development of medical and related biological research and aims to advance knowledge that will lead to improved health care. It employs its own research sta? in more than 40 research establishments. These include the National Institute for Medical Research, the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, and the Clinical Sciences Centre. Grants are provided so that individual scientists can do research which complements the research activities of hospitals and universities. There are several medical charities and foundations – for example, the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, the British Heart Foundation, the Nu?eld Laboratories and the Wellcome Trust which fund and foster medical research.... medical research council

A vein or collection of veins which ?nish at both ends in a bed of capillary blood vessels. An important example is the hepatic portal system, comprising the portal vein and its tributaries. Blood from the stomach, pancreas, spleen and intestines drains into the veins that join up to comprise the portal vein into the liver, where it branches into sinusoids.... portal system

That part of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM which is connected with the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD through certain nerve centres in the midbrain, medulla, and lower end of the cord. The nerves from these centres are carried in the third, seventh, ninth and tenth cranial nerves and the second, third and fourth sacral nerves. The action of the parasympathetic system is usually antagonistic to that of the sympathetic system. Thus it inhibits the action of the HEART and augments the action of the INTESTINE; whereas the sympathetic augments the action of the heart and inhibits that of the intestine. (See diagram of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems under NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... parasympathetic nervous system

A collective term for all the organs involved in sexual reproduction. In the female these are the OVARIES, FALLOPIAN TUBES, UTERUS, VAGINA and VULVA. In the male these are the testes (see TESTICLE), VAS DEFERENS, SEMINAL VESICLES, URETHRA and PENIS.... reproductive system

See separate dictionary entry.... systemic lupus erythematosus (sle)

The Mental Health

Act (1983) details the rights of patients with mental illness and the grounds for detaining mentally ill people against their will. It also outlines forms of legal guardianship for such patients.

When a person is endangering his or her own or other people’s health or safety (for example, threatening harm or suicide) because of a recognized mental illness, he or she may be compulsorily taken into hospital to be given treatment.

If a person breaks the law because of a mental disorder, the courts may remand him or her to hospital.... mental health act

(WHO)

An international organization established in 1948 as an agency of the United Nations with responsibilities for international health matters and public health. The headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland.

The has campaigned effectively against some infectious diseases, most

notably smallpox, tuberculosis, and malaria.

Other functions include sponsoring medical research programmes, organizing a network of collaborating national laboratories, and providing expert advice and specific targets to its 160 member states with regard to health matters.... world health organization

The heart and blood vessels, which together maintain a continuous flow of blood throughout the body. The system provides tissues with oxygen and nutrients, and carries away waste products. The circulatory system consists of 2 main parts: the systemic circulation, which supplies blood to the whole body apart from the lungs; and the pulmonary circulation to the lungs. Within the systemic circulation, there is a bypass (the portal circulation), which carries nutrient-rich blood from the stomach, intestine, and other digestive organs to the liver for processing, storage, or re-entry into general circulation.

In the systemic circulation, oxygen-rich blood from the pulmonary circulation is pumped under high pressure from the left ventricle of the heart into the aorta, from where it travels through arteries and smaller arterioles to all parts of the body. Within body tissues, the arterioles branch into networks of fine blood vessels called capillaries. Oxygen and other nutrients pass from the blood through the capillaries’ thin walls into body tissues; carbon dioxide and other wastes pass in the opposite direction. Deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart via venules, veins, and the venae cavae.

Venous blood returns to the right atrium of the heart to enter the pulmonary circulation. It is pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery

to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. The reoxygenated blood then returns through the pulmonary veins to the heart and re-enters the systemic circulation.... circulatory system

Also known as scleroderma, a rare autoimmune disorder that can affect many organs and tissues, particularly the skin, arteries, kidneys, lungs, heart, gastrointestinal tract, and

joints. The condition is 3 times as common in women and is most likely to appear between the age of 30 and 50.

The number and severity of symptoms varies. The most common symptom is Raynaud’s phenomenon. Also common are changes in the skin, especially of the face and fingers, which becomes shiny, tight, and thickened, leading to difficulty with movements. Other parts of the body may also be affected, leading to difficulty in swallowing, shortness of breath, palpitations, high blood pressure, joint pain, or muscle weakness. Progression of scleroderma is often rapid in the first few years and then slows down or even stops. In a minority of people, degeneration is rapid, and leads to death from heart failure, respiratory failure, or kidney failure.

There is no cure for scleroderma, but many of the symptoms can be relieved.... systemic sclerosis

See ASH.... action on smoking and health

Care that is generally provided for a short period of time to treat a new illness or a flare-up of an existing condition. This type of care may include treatment at home, short-term hospital stays, professional care, surgery, X-rays and scans, as well as emergency medical services.... acute care / acute health care

See LIVING WILL.... advance statements about medical treatment

A combination of individual and social actions designed to gain political commitment, policy support, social acceptance and systems support for a particular health goal or programme. Advocacy also has a role in creating awareness in the minds of the community regarding the rights of older persons.... advocacy for health

A system in which prices for health services and payment methods are the same, regardless of who is paying. For instance, in an all payer system, federal or state government, a private insurer, a self-insured employer plan, an individual, or any other payer could pay the same rates. The uniform fee bars health care providers from shifting costs from one payer to another. See “cost shifting”.... all payer system

Specially trained and licensed (when necessary) people in occupations that support and supplement the functions of health professionals. For the older population, such health personnel may include home health workers and nursing assistants. See also “auxiliary worker”.... allied health personnel

Health care practices that are not currently an integral part of conventional medicine. The list of these practices changes over time as the practices and therapies are proven safe and effective and become accepted as mainstream health care practices. These unorthodox approaches to health care are not based on biomedical explanations for their effectiveness. Examples include homeopathy, herbal formulas, and use of other natural products as preventive and treatment agents.... alternative and complementary health care / medicine / therapies

A complete system of theory and practices that has evolved independently of, and often prior to, the conventional biological approach. Many are traditional systems of medicine that are practised by individual cultures throughout the world. Traditional Oriental medicine and Ayurveda, India’s traditional system of medicine, are two examples.... alternative medical system

Andrographis Tea is well known for its bitter taste, as well as for its healthy benefits. It has proven to be an adjuvant in treating severe illness such as hepatitis, due to its high content of antioxidants. Andrographis Tea description Andrographis is originating from Asia, being used for centuries in Ayurvedic medicine. The plant is easy to grow: its propagation is by seeds, planted during spring and summer. Andrographis grows both in full sun or shade, developing vigorously in moist conditions. The herb has been proved to treat infectious diseases. This fact was discovered during the global flu epidemic of 1919, known as one of the most destructive infectious to outbreak in history, which killed millions worldwide, in many countries. Andrographis Tea is the resulting beverage from brewing the andrographis plant. It is widely known for its bitter taste as well as for its adjuvant properties against flu, depression, digestion complaints, but not only. Andrographis Tea brewing To brew Andrographis tea:

• place 1 teaspoon of dried andrographis in a tea infuser (10 grams of fresh leaves)
• place the infuser in a tea cup
• cover it with 1 cup of boiling water
• steep the tea for 10 minutes
• drink it slowly

The resulting tea has an extreme bitter taste. Another possibility of enjoying the benefits of Andrographis tea is to intake capsules containing the plant. Andrographis Tea benefits Andrographis Tea has many proven benefits, such as:

• Treating gastrointestinal complains
• Treating throat infections
• Dispelling toxins
• Increasing biliary flow
• Treating coughs, headaches, edema
• Treating pain conditions, inflammation
• Treating arthritis, rheumatism
• Treating constipation
• Treating pneumonia, tuberculosis, leprosy, hepatitis, herpes, diabetes, bronchitis

Andrographis Tea side effects It has been showed that Andrographis Tea should not be used by pregnant and nursing women or by children. It has been also noticed that large doses of Andrographis Tea may lead to infertility. Andrographis Tea is a healthy beverage which has the ability to strengthen the immune system, stop cancer cells from multiplying, and also render a good physical state. It can be consumed as tea or medicinal pills.... andrographis tea: a drop of health

A system for planning of appointments between resources such as clinicians and facilities and patients. It is used in order to minimize waiting times, prioritize appointments and optimize the utilization of resources.... appointment scheduling system

Methods, procedures, techniques and equipment that are scientifically valid, adapted to local needs and acceptable to those who use them and to those for whom they are used, and that can be maintained and utilized with resources the community or country can afford.... appropriate health technology

A structured process developed to ensure that assessment is relevant, consistent, fair and valid. The system requires rules of operation, a regular review process and competent assessors.... assessment system

1. Beta carotene: Carrots are a rich source of this powerful antioxidant, which, among other vital uses, can be converted into vitamin A in the body to help maintain healthy skin. 2. Digestion: Carrots increase saliva and supply essential minerals, vitamins and enzymes that aid in digestion. Eating carrots regularly may help prevent gastric ulcers and other digestive disorders. 3. Alkaline elements: Carrots are rich in alkaline elements, which purify and revitalize the blood while balancing the acid/alkaline ratio of the body. 4. Potassium: Carrots are a good source of potassium, which can help maintain healthy sodium levels in the body, thereby helping to reduce elevated blood pressure levels. 5. Dental Health: Carrots kill harmful germs in the mouth and help prevent tooth decay. 6. Wounds: Raw or grated carrots can be used to help heal wounds, cuts and inflammation. 7. Phytonutrients: Among the many beneficial phytochemicals that carrots contain is a phytonutrient called falcarinol, which may reduce the risk of colon cancer and help promote overall colon health. 8. Carotenoids: Carrots are rich in carotenoids, which our bodies can use to help regulate blood sugar. 9. Fiber: Carrots are high in soluble fiber, which may reduce cholesterol by binding the LDL form (the kind we don’t want) and increasing the HDL form (the kind our body needs) to help reduce blood clots and prevent heart disease. 10. Eyes, hair, nails and more! The nutrients in carrots can improve the health of your eyes, skin, hair, nails and more through helping to detoxify your system and build new cells! 11. Improves vision There’s some truth in the old wisdom that carrots are good for your eyes. Carrots are rich in beta-carotene, which is converted into vitamin A in the liver. Vitamin A is transformed in the retina, to rhodopsin, a purple pigment necessary for night vision. Beta-carotene has also been shown to protect against macular degeneration and senile cataracts. A study found that people who eat large amounts of beta-carotene had a 40 percent lower risk of macular degeneration than those who consumed little. 12. Helps prevent cancer Studies have shown carrots reduce the risk of lung cancer, breast cancer and colon cancer. Falcarinol is a natural pesticide produced by the carrot that protects its roots from fungal diseases. Carrots are one of the only common sources of this compound. A study showed 1/3 lower cancer risk by carrot-eating rats. 13. Slows down aging The high level of beta-carotene in carrots acts as an antioxidant to cell damage done to the body through regular metabolism. It help slows down the aging of cells. 14. Promotes healthier skin Vitamin A and antioxidants protect the skin from sun damage. Deficiencies of vitamin A cause dryness to the skin, hair and nails. Vitamin A prevents premature wrinkling, acne, dry skin, pigmentation, blemishes and uneven skin tone. 15. Helps prevent infection Carrots are known by herbalists to prevent infection. They can be used on cuts—shredded raw or boiled and mashed. 16. Promotes healthier skin (from the outside) Carrots are used as an inexpensive and very convenient facial mask. Just mix grated carrot with a bit of honey. See the full recipe here: carrot face mask. 17. Prevents heart disease Studies show that diets high in carotenoids are associated with a lower risk of heart disease. Carrots have not only beta-carotene but also alpha-carotene and lutein. The regular consumption of carrots also reduces cholesterol levels because the soluble fibers in carrots bind with bile acids. 18. Cleanses the body Vitamin A assists the liver in flushing out the toxins from the body. It reduces the bile and fat in the liver. The fiber present in carrots helps clean out the colon and hasten waste movement. 19. Protects teeth and gums It’s all in the crunch! Carrots clean your teeth and mouth. They scrape off plaque and food particles just like toothbrushes or toothpaste. Carrots stimulate gums and trigger a lot of saliva, which, being alkaline, balances out the acid-forming, cavity-forming bacteria. The minerals in carrots prevent tooth damage. 20. Prevents stroke From all the above benefits it’s no surprise that in a Harvard University study, people who ate five or more carrots a week were less likely to suffer a stroke than those who ate only one carrot a month or less.... amazing health benefits of carrots

A network of health units providing essential health care to a population. Basic health services include communicable disease control, environmental sanitation, maintenance of records for statistical purposes, health education of the public, public health nursing and medical care.... basic health service

See APPENDIX 8: PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS.

British National Formulary (BNF)

A pocket-book for those concerned with the prescribing, dispensing and administration of medicines in Britain. It is produced jointly by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society and the British Medical Association, is revised twice yearly and is distributed to NHS doctors by the Health Departments. The BNF is also available in electronic form.... british medical association (bma)

The several blood factors that enable the acid waste products of metabolism to be carried in the alkaline blood without disrupting its chemistry. These include carbolic acid, carbonates, phosphates, electrolytes, blood proteins, and erythrocyte membranes.... buffering system

Barberry tea is well known inAsia, Europe, Africa and America due to its medicinal properties. Nowadays, it is consumed worldwide as tincture, fluid extract or capsules. Barberry tea description Barberry is a shrub growing in gray-colored and tight thorny hedges, producing yellow flowers during spring and red berries in autumn. Its roots, bark and berries have been used for more than 2,500 years for a variety of health-promoting purposes. In ancient Egypt, barberry was mixed with fennel to fight plague. Nowadays, Barberry is available in the form of capsules, fluid extract and tincture. Barberry Tea is made of the dried roots and berries of barberry. Barberry tea brewing To prepare Barberry tea: steep 1 to 2 teaspoons of dried barberry root or 1 to 2 teaspoons of whole (or crushed berries) in about 2/3 of a cup of hot water for 10 to 15 minutes. Barberry Tea can be consumed three times, daily. Barberry tea benefits Barberry tea has proven its efficiency in treating:

• inflammation due to bacterial ear, nose and throat infection
• bacterial and viral forms of diarrhea
• psoriasis
• the function of the gallbladder
• urinary tract infection
• heartburn
• candida
• epilepsy

Barberry Tea may help stabilize blood pressure and normalize heart rhythm. Also, it has been claimed that Barberry Tea may help strengthen the immune system. Barberry tea side effects Studies conducted so far showed that Barberry tea should not be used beyond seven consecutive days, in order to avoid complications on excessive use of barberry. There have been cases when Barberry tea interacted with anti-coagulants, blood pressure medication and antibiotics, causing side effects. Pregnant, nursing women, and nursing infants also should avoid drinking this tea. Barberry tea is a medicinal beverage, effective in treating respiratory and urinary tract infections, as well as hypertension, diarrhea and gallbladder disease.... barberry tea for body health

Biota tea is a Chinese beverage, used nowadays to heal hemorrhages and other types of ailments, such as headaches, but not only. Biota tea description Biota is a slow-growing shrub or tree from the cypress family, originating from China. It is considered as one of the 50 fundamental herbs in the annals of Chinese herbalism. Biota has a central stem, scale-like leaves and little inconspicuous flowers. The biota leaves are small, and triangular-shaped, with a grayish-green color and a fragrant odor. The seeds are the eatable parts of this plant. Both the leaves and the seeds are used for medicinal purposes. Biota trees and shrubs have ornamental uses as they make beautiful natural fences and hedges. Also, they are good as wind breakers and as a good ground cover for a variety of wildlife. Parts from these plants make useful additions as culinary ingredients and medicinal herbs. These vegetative substances became part of the cosmetic industry, being added to lotions, shampoos and conditioners. Biota tea is the beverage resulting from brewing the abovementioned plant. Biota tea brewing To prepare Biota tea, add the dried leaves in the boiling water and stir the mixture. Strain it and drink it slowly. Biota tea benefits Biota tea has been successfully used to:

• fight headaches
• fight asthma, cough and bronchitis
• fight fever
• fight bacteria and viruses
• heal wounds, treat burns, as well as improve the growth of hair, when applied topically
• help in the treatment of excessive menstruation
• fight hemorrhages
• ease arthritic pain
• help in the treatment of premature baldness
• soothe and calm the nerves
• fight constipation among the elderly

Biota tea side effects Pregnant or nursing women should not intake Biota tea. Biota tea is a healthy beverage able to fight against bacteria, viruses or even prevent baldness, if applied topically. It also proved its efficiency in dealing with arthritic pains.... biota tea health benefits

Blessed Thistle tea is a medicinal beverage useful in treating a large array of ailments such as constipation, but not only. Blessed Thistle Tea description Blessed thistle was at first used in Ayurvedic medicine in India and Bhutan. It was introduced in Europe in the 1500s where it gained the title “blessed” for its use in treating plague. The blessed thistle is a weed with prickly leaves and yellow flowers surrounded by purple spikes, found mostly in North Africa, Western Asia and Southern Europe. The leaves, the flowers and the stem are used to prepare Blessed thistle tea. Blessed Thistle Tea brewing Blessed thistle tea can be prepared in the following way: douse about 1 to 3 dried blessed thistle herb in a cup of boiled water for 5 to 15 minutes. It can then be drunk three times a day before meals. Blessed Thistle Tea benefits Blessed Thistle tea has been successfully used to:

• treat digestive problems, like gas, constipation and stomach upset
• improve appetite
• detoxify the body
• support liver and gallbladder
• stimulate menstrual flow

Blessed Thistle Tea side effects High doses of Blessed thistle tea can cause:

• stomach irritation and vomiting
• liver disease
• gastrointestinal and liver problems and esophageal or nasal cancer

Blessed Thistle tea is a natural remedy to detoxify the body and thus, to enhance the immunity and support the normal functioning of the human organs.... blessed thistle tea is good for health

Health insurance which provides protection against the high cost of treating severe or lengthy illnesses or disabilities. Generally such policies cover all, or a specified percentage of medical expenses above an amount that is the responsibility of another insurance policy, up to a maximum limit of liability.... catastrophic health insurance

Nowadays, burdock tea is largely consumed all over the world. It is successfully used to improve appetite and digestion, but not only. Burdock Tea description Burdock is a plant from the same family as the sunflower, which can grow up to five feet high. In the summer, the seeds are cropped and the roots are dug up. In traditional Chinese medicine, but not only, it is combined with other herbs to treat upper-respiratory tract infections. Burdock root is known to be a blood purifier, clearing several problems from the body’s systems. Burdock can be taken as infusion, decoction, extract, tincture and ointment. Burdock tea is the resulting beverage from brewing the abovementioned plant. Burdock Tea brewing To prepare Burdock tea:

• Pour boiling water over the desired amount of herbs.
• Cover and let them steep 10 to 20 minutes.
• Strain off the herbs using a tea strainer or coffee filter.

It is essential to use good quality water and it is recommended to drink it slowly. Burdock Tea benefits Burdock tea has been successfully used to:

• soothe the skin and gastrointestinal tract
• improve appetite and digestion
• reduce liver damage
• mildly lower blood sugar (hypoglycemic effect)
• purify the blood
• fight the effects of rheumatism
• treat some kidney disorders
• counter bronchial cough and other irritations of the pulmonary tract

Burdock Tea side effects Burdock tea is not advised to be consumed by pregnant or nursing women. Burdock tea is a medicinal remedy for a large array of diseases. Studies have revealed its efficiency in dealing with liver and kidney ailments, as well as its soothing effects for the skin.... burdock tea: a health remedy

Cherry Tea is a dark red beverage with an intense fruity flavour whose colour resembles ripe cherries and it can be enjoyed hot or cold. The delightful cherry scent is often blended with other aromas which results in savory and exotic mixtures. Cherry Tea Brewing Regarding cherry tea, the brewing time can vary, but the standard procedure entails a five-minute steeping process. Consequently, you will rejoice in the lovely cherry aroma of your amazingly enticing and enjoyable beverage. Health Benefits of Cherry Tea Cherry Tea is a beneficial fruity beverage with numerous health benefits. Cherry fruits are renowned for their delightfully refreshing flavour and delicious sweet taste, but they are also packed with nutrients, vitamins and minerals that essentially contribute to our wellbeing. These fruits are rich in antioxidants which protect our body from free radicals and thus lower the risk of cancer and various neurological diseases, but they also delay the aging process. Cherries also contain melatonin, an antioxidant with calming effects on the brain, which helps releave irritability, insomnia and headaches, thus improving the quality of sleep. The countless health benefits of cherry tea also include anti-inflammatory properties and could potentially prove effective against pain caused by diseases or injuries. Cherry fruits are low in calories, but they contain vitamin C which unfortunately entices you to consume approximately 180 calories more a day. This could possibly result in the accumulation of some extra weight if consumed for large periods of time. Therefore, adjust your dietary plan accordingly. Side effects of Cherry Tea Cherry Tea contains extracts from the cherries which can induce an allergic reaction to people sensitive to these fruits, but it is generally side-effect-free. You can enjoy a savory cup of cherry tea at any given time of the day in order to boost your overall energy level and metabolism. The full flavour of succulent fresh cherries along with a delectable and lingering aftertaste will enchant you. Cherry tea is without doubt a delightful juicy drink with an exotic character.... cherry tea - ingredients and health benefits

The course of the circulation is as follows: the veins pour their blood, coming from the head, trunk, limbs and abdominal organs, into the right atrium of the HEART. This contracts and drives the blood into the right ventricle, which then forces the blood into the LUNGS by way of the pulmonary artery. Here it is contained in thin-walled capillaries, over which the air plays freely, and through which gases pass readily out and in. The blood gives o? carbon dioxide (CO2) and takes up oxygen (see RESPIRATION), and passes on by the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium expels it into the left ventricle, which forces it on into the aorta, by which it is distributed all over the body. Passing through capillaries in the various tissues, it enters venules, then veins, which ultimately unite into two great veins, the superior and the inferior vena cava, these emptying into the right atrium. This complete circle is accomplished by any particular drop of blood in about half a minute.

In one part of the body there is a further complication. The veins coming from the bowels, charged with food material and other products, split up, and their blood undergoes a second capillary circulation through the liver. Here it is relieved of some food material and puri?ed, and then passes into the inferior vena cava, and so to the right atrium. This is known as the portal circulation.

The circle is maintained always in one direction by four valves, situated one at the outlet from each cavity of the heart.

The blood in the arteries going to the body generally is bright red, that in the veins dull red in colour, owing to the former being charged with oxygen and the latter with carbon dioxide (see RESPIRATION). For the same reason the blood in the pulmonary artery is dark, that in the pulmonary veins is bright. There is no direct communication between the right and left sides of the heart, the blood passing from the right ventricle to the left atrium through the lungs.

In the embryo, before birth, the course of circulation is somewhat di?erent, owing to the fact that no nourishment comes from the bowels nor air into the lungs. Accordingly, two large arteries pass out of the navel, and convey blood to be changed by contact with maternal blood (see PLACENTA), while a large vein brings this blood back again. There are also communications between the right and left atria, and between pulmonary artery and aorta. The latter is known as the ductus arteriosus. At birth all these extra vessels and connections close and rapidly shrivel up.... circulatory system of the blood

An information system that collects, stores and transmits information that is used to support clinical applications (e.g. transmission of laboratory test results, radiology results, prescription drug orders). Electronic medical records are one method by which clinical information systems can be created.... clinical information system

Paediatrics is the branch of medicine which deals with diseases of children, but many paediatricians have a wider role, being employed largely outside acute hospitals and dealing with child health in general.

History Child health services were originally designed, before the NHS came into being, to ?nd or prevent physical illness by regular inspections. In the UK these were carried out by clinical medical o?cers (CMOs) working in infant welfare clinics (later, child health clinics) set up to ?ll the gap between general practice and hospital care. The services expanded greatly from the mid 1970s; ‘inspections’ have evolved into a regular screening and surveillance system by general practitioners and health visitors, while CMOs have mostly been replaced by consultant paediatricians in community child health (CPCCH).

Screening Screening begins at birth, when every baby is examined for congenital conditions such as dislocated hips, heart malformations, cataract and undescended testicles. Blood is taken to ?nd those babies with potentially brain-damaging conditions such as HYPOTHYROIDISM and PHENYLKETONURIA. Some NHS trusts screen for the life-threatening disease CYSTIC FIBROSIS, although in future it is more likely that ?nding this disease will be part of prenatal screening, along with DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME and SPINA BIFIDA. A programme to detect hearing impairment in newborn babies has been piloted from 2001 in selected districts to ?nd out whether it would be a useful addition to the national screening programme. Children from ethnic groups at risk of inherited abnormalities of HAEMOGLOBIN (sickle cell disease; thalassaemia – see under ANAEMIA) have blood tested at some time between birth and six months of age.

Illness prevention At two months, GPs screen babies again for these abnormalities and start the process of primary IMMUNISATION. The routine immunisation programme has been dramatically successful in preventing illness, handicap and deaths: as such it is the cornerstone of the public health aspect of child health, with more potential vaccines being made available every year. Currently, infants are immunised against pertussis (see WHOOPING COUGH), DIPHTHERIA, TETANUS, POLIOMYELITIS, haemophilus (a cause of MENINGITIS, SEPTICAEMIA, ARTHRITIS and epiglottitis) and meningococcus C (SEPTICAEMIA and meningitis – see NEISSERIACEAE) at two, three and four months. Selected children from high-risk groups are o?ered BCG VACCINE against tuberculosis and hepatitis vaccine. At about 13 months all are o?ered MMR VACCINE (measles, mumps and rubella) and there are pre-school entry ‘boosters’ of diphtheria, tetanus, polio, meningococcus C and MMR. Pneumococcal vaccine is available for particular cases but is not yet part of the routine schedule.

Health promotion and education Throughout the UK, parents are given their child’s personal health record to keep with them. It contains advice on health promotion, including immunisation, developmental milestones (when did he or she ?rst smile, sit up, walk and so on), and graphs – called centile charts – on which to record height, weight and head circumference. There is space for midwives, doctors, practice nurses, health visitors and parents to make notes about the child.

Throughout at least the ?rst year of life, both parents and health-care providers set great store by regular weighing, designed to pick up children who are ‘failing to thrive’. Measuring length is not quite so easy, but height measurements are recommended from about two or three years of age in order to detect children with disorders such as growth-hormone de?ciency, malabsorption (e.g. COELIAC DISEASE) and psychosocial dwar?sm (see below).

All babies have their head circumference measured at birth, and again at the eight-week check. A too rapidly growing head implies that the infant might have HYDROCEPHALUS – excess ?uid in the hollow spaces within the brain. A too slowly growing head may mean failure of brain growth, which may go hand in hand with physically or intellectually delayed development.

At about eight months, babies receive a surveillance examination, usually by a health visitor. Parents are asked if they have any concerns about their child’s hearing, vision or physical ability. The examiner conducts a screening test for hearing impairment – the so-called distraction test; he or she stands behind the infant, who is on the mother’s lap, and activates a standardised sound at a set distance from each ear, noting whether or not the child turns his or her head or eyes towards the sound. If the child shows no reaction, the test is repeated a few weeks later; if still negative then referral is made to an audiologist for more formal testing.

The doctor or health visitor will also go through the child’s developmental progress (see above) noting any signi?cant deviation from normal which merits more detailed examination. Doctors are also recommended to examine infants developmentally at some time between 18 and 24 months. At this time they will be looking particularly for late walking or failure to develop appropriate language skills.... child health

See HEALTHCARE COMMISSION.... commission for health improvement

Collective efforts by communities which are directed towards increasing community control over the determinants of health and thereby improving health.... community action for health

Includes health services and integrates social care. It promotes self care, independence and family support networks.... community health care

An ambulatory health care programme, usually serving a catchment area which has scarce or non-existent health services or a population with special health needs. These centres attempt to coordinate federal, state and local resources in a single organization capable of delivering both health and related social services to a defined population.... community health centre

An integrated collection of computer and telecommunication capabilities that permit multiple providers, payers, employers and related health care entities within a geographic area to share and communicate client, clinical and payment information.... community health information network (chin)

Cleavers tea has been used for centuries, even in ancient Greece. It is considered probably the best tonic for the lymphatic system available. Discover all of its benefits and learn how to make the most of this type of tea. Description of Cleavers tea Cleavers is an annual green plant that grows mostly in Britain, North America and Eurasia regions. The green to white flowers look like small balls and they are very sticky, similar to the leaves. Scientifically named gallium aparine, cleavers is also called bedstraw, barweed, catchweed, grip grass. The entire cleavers plant is used in herbal medicine and is harvested just before it blooms in early summer. The active constituents of cleavers tea are chlorophyll, citric acide, rubichloric acid, galiosin and tannins. To benefit the most from these constituents, you can consume cleavers, usually found in the form of tea, extracts, capsule, or fresh for many cooking recipes. The roasted seeds are used as a coffee substitute and the young leaves can be eaten like spinach. Cleavers tea has a slightly bitter taste and no odor. Cleavers tea brew For a tasty Cleavers tea, take 2 to 3 teaspoons of the dried above-ground parts of the plant and infuse them in a 250 mg cup of hot water for 10 or 15 minutes. You may add sugar or honey to improve its taste and drink up to three times per day. Cleavers tea  Benefits Cleavers tea is a strong detoxifying for the lymphatic system. It is diuretic, thus treating most of urinary tract infections. It cleans the blood, the liver and kidneys. The tea can be used together with Uva Ursi or Echinacea for best results. Applied topically, Cleavers tea helps in the treatment of many skin conditions like acne, eczema, psoriasis, dandruff, itchy scalp, sunburns or even wounds. Cleavers tea can be used as a facial tonner because it helps clear the complexion. Cleavers tea Side effects Cleavers tea has no known side effects. Though it is widely safe, children, pregnant or nursing women should drink it with precaution. Cleavers tea can surely be included in a healthy lifestyle. As long as you don’t exaggerate with it, you can enjoy the benefits of this tea and even use the plant to prepare many tasty recipes and salads.... cleavers tea - best tonic for the lymphatic system available in nature

The ongoing process of evaluating the health needs of a community. Usually facilitates prioritization of needs and a strategy to address them.... community health needs assessment

Usually managed by NHS trusts, these are a complex variety of services provided to people outside hospital settings. The key parts are the services delivered by district nurses, health visitors and therapists – for example, physiotherapists and speech therapists.... community health services

A trained health worker who works with other health and development workers as a team. The community health worker provides the first contact between the individual and the health system. The types of community health worker vary between countries and communities according to their needs and the resources available to meet them. In many societies, these workers come from and are chosen by the community in which they work. In some countries they work as volunteers; normally those who work part-time or full-time are rewarded, in cash or in kind, by the community and the formal health services.... community health worker

An entity which provides comprehensive mental health services (principally ambulatory), primarily to individuals residing or employed in a defined catchment area.... community mental health centre

Intended as a key part of the NHS’s local comprehensive mental health services serving populations of around 50,000, these multidisciplinary, multi-agency teams have been less e?ective than expected, in part due to varying modes of operation in di?erent districts. Some experts argue that the services they provide – for example, crisis intervention, liaison with primary care services and continuing care for long-term clients – could be delivered more e?ectively by several specialist teams rather than a single, large generic one comprising psychiatrists, psychologists, community mental health nurses, occupational therapists, support and (sometimes) social workers.... community mental health teams

This is part of the body’s defence mechanism that comprises a series of 20 serum peptides (see PEPTIDE). These are sequentially activated to produce three signi?cant effects: ?rstly, the release of small peptides which provoke in?ammation and attract phagocytes (see PHAGOCYTE); secondly, the deposition of a substance (component C3b) on the membranes of invading bacteria or viruses, attracting phagocytes to destroy the microbes; thirdly, the activation of substances that damage cell membranes – called lytic components – which hasten the destruction of ‘foreign’ cells. (See IMMUNOLOGY.)... complement system

Provision of a complete range of health services, from diagnosis to rehabilitation.... comprehensive health care

A health system that includes all the elements required to meet all the health needs of the population.... comprehensive health system

Organized collaboration, as necessary, among those providing the services at the same and different levels of the health system in order to make the most efficient use of resources, as well as within and among the various categories of health workers following agreement on the division of labour. It also means coordination of programmes or services to avoid duplication or inconsistency.... coordination within the health sector

A managerial process dealing directly with the selection of priority health problems, specification of operational objectives and translation of these into activities, resource needs and organization.... country health programming

This is the title used for a diverse group of health-related therapies and disciplines which are not considered to be a part of mainstream medical care. Other terms sometimes used to describe them include ‘natural medicine’, ‘nonconventional medicine’ and ‘holistic medicine’. CAM embraces those therapies which may either be provided alongside conventional medicine (complementary) or which may, in the view of their practitioners, act as a substitute for it. Alternative disciplines purport to provide diagnostic information as well as o?ering therapy. However, there is a move now to integrate CAM with orthodox medicine and this view is supported by the Foundation for Integrated Medicine in the UK in its report, A way forward for the next ?ve years? – A discussion paper (1997).

The University of Exeter Centre for Complementary Health Studies report, published in 2000, estimated that there are probably more than 60,000 practitioners of complementary and alternative medicine in the UK. In addition there are about 9,300 therapist members of organisations representing practitioners who have statutory quali?cations, including doctors, nurses (see NURSING), midwives, osteopaths and physiotherapists; chiropractors became fully regulated by statute in June 2001. There are likely to be many thousands more health sta? with an active interest or involvement in the practice of complementary medicine – for example, the 10,000 members of the Royal College of Nursing’s Complementary Therapy Forum. It is possible that up to 20,000 statutory health professionals regularly practise some form of complementary medicine including half of all general practices providing access to CAMs – most commonly manipulation therapies. The report from the Centre at Exeter University estimates that up to 5 million patients consulted a practitioner specialising in complementary and alternative medicine in 1999. Surveys of users of complementary and alternative practitioners show a relatively high satisfaction rating and it is likely that many patients will go on to use such therapists over an extended period. The Exeter Centre estimates that, with the increments of the last two years, up to 15–20 million people, possibly 33 per cent of the population of the country, have now sought such treatment.

The 1998 meeting of the British Medical Association (BMA) agreed to ‘investigate the scienti?c basis and e?cacy of acupuncture and the quality of training and standards of con?dence in its practitioners’. In the resulting report (July 2000) the BMA recommended that guidelines on CAM use for general practitioners, complementary medicine practitioners and patients were urgently needed, and that the Department of Health should select key CAM therapies, including acupuncture, for appraisal by the National Institute for Clinical Medicine (NICE). The BMA also reiterated its earlier recommendation that the main CAM therapies, including acupuncture, should be included in familiarisation courses on CAM provided within medical schools, and that accredited postgraduate education should be provided to inform GPs and other clinicians about the possible bene?ts of CAM for patients.... complementary and alternative medicine (cam)

Also known as ‘expert systems’, these are computer software systems intended to help doctors make clinical decisions. Primary care medicine is especially noted for its uncertainty by virtue of being most patients’ ?rst point of contact with health care, confronting the clinician with many ‘undi?erentiated’ health problems. So far, these systems have not been as e?ective as expected because of a failure to ana-lyse the needs of primary care. Simple procedures to prompt the delivery of treatment to patients with chronic conditions have improved care quality, but work needs to be done on their cost-e?ectiveness. The aim of more complex computerised support systems will be to forecast likely future events and the possible e?ectiveness of proposed interventions, based on available information about the patient and an understanding of the risks and e?cacy of interventions by doctors and other experts.

One example, called ISABEL, can be accessed by paediatricians to check on their diagnosis and management of many childhood disorders.... computerised decision-support systems

See “decision analysis”.... decision support system

Willingness and/or ability to seek, use and, in some settings, pay for services. Sometimes further subdivided into expressed demand (equated with use) and potential demand or need.... demand (for health services)

An emerging field in the intersection of medical informatics, public health and business, referring to health services and information delivered or enhanced through the Internet and related technologies.... e-health

A process through which people gain greater control over decisions and actions affecting their lives. It is the process by which disadvantaged individuals or groups acquire the knowledge and skills needed to assert their rights.... empowerment for health

A local-authority health o?cial specially quali?ed in aspects of environmental health such as clean air, food hygiene, housing, pollution, sanitation and water supplies. He or she is responsible for running the authority’s environmental health department and, when epidemiological advice is needed, the relevant public-health physician acts in a consultative capacity (see EPIDEMIOLOGY; PUBLIC HEALTH).... environmental health officer

Guidelines for doctors on the provision of good medical care laid down by the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC).... good medical practice

A factor or exposure that may adversely affect health.... hazard (health)

The statutory body in Britain responsible for the health and safety of workers. The address of the HSE can be found in APPENDIX 7: STATUTORY ORGANISATIONS.... health and safety executive (hse)

Environment and Health concerns those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by physical, biological, social and psychosocial factors in the environment. The promotion of good health requires not only public policies which support health, but also the creation of supportive environments in which living and working conditions are safe, stimulating and enjoyable.

Health has driven much of environmental policy since the work of Edwin Chadwick in the early 1840s. The ?rst British public-health act was introduced in 1848 to improve housing and sanitation with subsequent provision of puri?ed water, clean milk, food hygiene regulations, vaccinations and antibiotics. In the 21st century there are now many additional environmental factors that must be monitored, researched and controlled if risks to human health are to be well managed and the impact on human morbidity and mortality reduced.

Environmental impacts on health include:

noise

air pollution

water pollution

dust •odours

contaminated ground

loss of amenities

vermin

vibration

animal diseases

Environmental risk factors Many of the major determinants of health, disease and death are environmental risk factors. Some are natural hazards; others are generated by human activities. They may be directly harmful, as in the examples of exposure to toxic chemicals at work, pesticides, or air pollution from road transport, or to radon gas penetrating domestic properties. Environmental factors may also alter people’s susceptibility to disease: for example, the availability of su?cient food. In addition, they may operate by making unhealthy choices more likely, such as the availability and a?ord-ability of junk foods, alcohol, illegal drugs or tobacco.

Populations at risk Children are among the populations most sensitive to environmental health hazards. Their routine exposure to toxic chemicals in homes and communities can put their health at risk. Central to the ability to protect communities and families is the right of people to know about toxic substances. For many, the only source of environmental information is media reporting, which often leaves the public confused and frustrated. To bene?t from public access to information, increasingly via the Internet, people need basic environmental and health information, resources for interpreting, understanding and evaluating health risks, and familiarity with strategies for prevention or reduction of risk.

Risk assessment Environmental health experts rely on the principles of environmental toxicology and risk assessment to evaluate the environment and the potential effects on individual and community health. Key actions include:

identifying sources and routes of environmental exposure and recommending methods of reducing environmental health risks, such as exposure to heavy metals, solvents, pesticides, dioxins, etc.

assessing the risks of exposure-related health hazards.

alerting health professionals, the public, and the media to the levels of risk for particular potential hazards and the reasons for interventions.

ensuring that doctors and scientists explain the results of environmental monitoring studies – for example, the results of water ?uoridation in the UK to improve dental health.

National policies In the United Kingdom in 1996, an important step in linking environment and health was taken by a government-initiated joint consultation by the Departments of Health and Environment about adding ‘environment’ as a key area within the Health of the Nation strategy. The ?rst UK Minister of State for Public Health was appointed in 1997 with responsibilities for health promotion and public-health issues, both generally and within the NHS. These responsibilities include the implementation of the Health of the Nation strategy and its successor, Our Healthy Nation. The aim is to raise the priority given to human health throughout government departments, and to make health and environmental impact assessment a routine part of the making, implementing and assessing the impact of policies.

Global environmental risks The scope of many environmental threats to human health are international and cannot be regulated e?ectively on a local, regional or even national basis. One example is the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident, which led to a major release of radiation, the effects of which were felt in many countries. Some international action has already been taken to tackle global environmental problems, but governments should routinely measure the overall impacts of development on people and their environments and link with industry to reduce damage to the environment. For instance, the effects of global warming and pollution on health should be assessed within an ecological framework if communities are to respond e?ectively to potential new global threats to the environment.... environment and health

Any activity undertaken by an individual, regardless of actual or perceived health status, for the purpose of promoting, protecting or maintaining health, whether or not such behaviour is objectively effective towards that end.... health behaviour

See “health system”.... health care delivery system

Any establishment that is engaged in direct patient care on site.... health care institution / facility

A group comprising a variety of professionals (medical practitioners, nurses, physical and occupational therapists, social workers, pharmacists, spiritual counsellors), as well as family members, who are involved in providing coordinated and comprehensive care. There are three types of health care team, defined by the degree of interaction among members and the sharing of responsibility for care:... health care team

The systematic evaluation of properties, effects and/or impacts of health care technology. It may address the direct, intended consequences of technologies as well as their indirect, unintended consequences.... health care technology assessment (hcta)

A communication strategy to inform the public or communities about health issues with the objective of reducing health risks and improving health status.... health communication strategy

Treatment that is usually considered unable to produce the desired benefit either because it cannot achieve its physiological aim or because the burdens of the treatment are considered to outweigh the benefits for the particular individual. There are necessary value judgements involved in coming to an assessment of futility. These judgements must consider the individual’s, or proxy’s, assessment of worthwhile outcome. They should also take into account the medical practitioner or other provider’s perception of intent in treatment. They may also take into account community and institutional standards, which in turn may have used physiological or functional outcome measures.... futile medical treatment

A statutory body of elected and appointed medical practitioners and appointed lay members with the responsibility of protecting patients and guiding doctors in their professional practice. Set up by parliament in 1858 – at the request of the medical profession, which was concerned by the large numbers of untrained people practising as doctors – the GMC is responsible for setting educational and professional standards; maintaining a register of quali?ed practitioners; and disciplining doctors who fail to maintain appropriate professional standards, cautioning them or temporarily or permanently removing them from the Medical Register if they are judged un?t to practise.

The Council is funded by doctors’ annual fees and is responsible to the Privy Council. Substantial reforms of the GMC’s structure and functions have been and are still being undertaken to ensure that it operates e?ectively in today’s rapidly evolving medical and social environment. In particular, the Council has strengthened its supervisory and disciplinary functions, and among many changes has proposed the regular revalidation of doctors’ professional abilities on a periodic basis. The Medical Register, maintained by the GMC, is intended to enable the public to identify whom it is safe to approach to obtain medical services. Entry on the Register shows that the doctor holds a recognised primary medical quali?cation and is committed to upholding the profession’s values. Under revalidation requirements being ?nalised, in addition to holding an initial quali?cation, doctors wishing to stay on the Register will have to show their continuing ?tness to practise according to the professional attributes laid down by the GMC.

Once revalidation is fully established, there will be four categories of doctor:

Those on the Register who successfully show their ?tness to practise on a regular basis.

Those whose registration is limited, suspended or removed as a result of the Council’s disciplinary procedures.

Those who do not wish to stay on the Register or retain any links with the GMC.

Those, placed on a supplementary list, who do not wish to stay on the main Register but who want to retain a formal link with the medical profession through the Council. Such doctors will not be able to practise or prescribe.... general medical council (gmc)

The centralised collection and storage of information about the health of individuals. Recent advances in GENETICS have raised concerns about the potential for abuse of all health databases, whether maintained for scienti?c research – which has long used them – or for government or community health planning, or by groups of professionals (or individuals) to help in the treatment of patients. The public is concerned about whether their rights to privacy and con?dentiality are threatened by databases and whether information about them could be disclosed and misused.... health databases

The process of continuous, progressive improvement of the health status of individuals and groups in a population.... health development

A population-based measure of the proportion of the expected life span estimated to be healthful and fulfilling, or free of illness, disease and disability.... health expectancy

A measure of improved health outcome following an intervention.... health gain

An ultimate desired state of health towards which actions and resources are directed.... health goal

A characteristic of an individual, population or environment which is subjected to measurement and can be used to describe one or more aspects of the health of an individual or population (quality, quantity and time). A health index comprises a number of indicators.... health indicator / index

The generation and the use of appropriate health information to support decision-making, health care delivery and management of health services at national and subnational level.... health information system

Gyokuro tea is said to be the finest type of green tea. It is largely consumed for its health properties, but also for its unique taste. Its ingredients balance the diet in a harmonious way. Gyokuro tea description Gyokuro tea, or in translation “Jewel Dew”, is a fine type of green tea. It has a deep green colour and a rich seaweed and mellow taste flavor. Itscomponentsare theanine, caffeine, tannin and vitamin C. Theanine provides the tea’s flavor, caffeine its bitterness, and tannin its astringency. Gyokuro tea’s high quality and price are related to the unusual growing techniques. The tea is made only with the earliest leaf buds of the April/May harvest. The aforementioned tea is grown under shade cover for 20 days before harvesting begins. It is considered the best of the Japanese teas and offers consumers a refreshing experience. How to prepare Gyokuro tea Gyokuro tea is advisable to be drunk alone, without mixing it with milk or sugar. Occasionally, one can only serve it with a piece of dark chocolate. It seems that its leaves can be eaten, being soft and healthy.

• Use good quality water to prepare a good Gyokuro tea
• The optimal brewing temperature is between 122 F and 140 F degrees.
• First, preheat the cups or the teapot, because pouring the moderately warm tea into a cold cup changes its temperature.
• Pour some of the boiled water into the tea kettle and wait one or two minutes.
• Add the leaves and the remaining water.
• Use 2 table spoons of tea to approx. 4-5 ounces of water.
• Brewing time is between two and three minutes. While brewing, don’t mix, stir or shake the tea. Try to leave enough room for the leaves to expand.

Gyokuro tea benefits Due to its high content of antioxidants, Gyokuro tea reduces the risk of cancer. It can fight the free radicals responsible for the growth of tumors. This type of tea has a large contribution in making cells less likely to be affected by mutations. There have been instances in which it helped to cell recovery. Gyokuro tea can be successfully used to:

• stimulate the metabolism
• burn off  calories
• lower cholesterol
• protect against various cardiovascular diseases
• soothe and relax the mind
• enhance cognition and alertness
• improve concentration
• keep one energetic
• prevent dental plaque, bacterial infections and dental decay
• freshen your breathe
• protect against bacteria

Gyokuro tea side effects In case of large intakes of Gyokuro tea, insomnia may appear, especially to consumers already suffering from a sleep pattern disorder. Agitation and anxiety are other side effects caused by the content of caffeine. Children, people with heart medical problems and pregnant women are normally told to avoid Gyokuro tea or to drink it in limited quantities. Gyokuro tea contains a great quantity of antioxidants and caffeine that better people’s daily activities by enhancing their state of mind and well-being.  ... gyokuro tea health benefits

Appointed by the UK government to help improve the NHS in England (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have similar bodies), HDA replaced the long-established Health Education Authority in April 2000. The agency supports government priorities to improve public health and to tackle health inequalities. Among its key functions are:

Maintaining an up-to-date evidence base of ‘what works’ in public health and health improvements.

Providing useful information to health practitioners.

Commissioning research to remedy the gaps in the evidence base for medical practice.

Improving health promotion and advising on the standards for (and implementation of) public-health activities.

(See APPENDIX 7: STATUTORY ORGANISATIONS.)... health development agency (hda)

Financial protection against the health care costs arising from disease or accidental bodily injury. Such insurance usually covers all or part of the costs of treating the disease or injury. Insurance may be obtained on either an individual or a group basis.... health insurance

The cognitive skills and motivation of an individual to gain access to, and use information to promote and maintain good health.... health literacy

An organized system providing health care in a geographic area to an enrolled group of persons who pay a predetermined fixed, periodic prepayment made by, or on behalf of, each person or family unit enrolled, irrespective of actual service use.... health maintenance organization (hmo)

Changes in health status which result from the provision of health (or other) services.... health outcome

All persons employed or contracted to provide health services.... health personnel

Planning for the improvement of the health of a population or community, for a particular population, type of health service, institution or health programme.... health planning

A formal statement or procedure within an institution (notably government) which defines goals, priorities and the parameters for action in response to health needs, within the context of available resources.... health policy

An organized series of activities directed towards the attainment of defined health objectives and targets.... health programme

An assessment of the extent to which health promotion actions achieve a “valued” outcome.... health promotion evaluation

Assessment of changes to personal characteristics and skills, and/or social norms and actions, and/or organizational practices and public policies which are attributable to a health promotion activity.... health promotion outcome

Research on all aspects of health, the factors affecting it, and ways of promoting, protecting and improving it. It is an essential part of national health development. It includes medical and biomedical research relating to a wide variety of medical matters and involving various life sciences, such as molecular biology and biophysics; clinical research, which is based on the observation and treatment of patients or volunteers; epidemiological research, which is concerned with the study and control of diseases and of situations that are suspected of being harmful to health; and socioeconomic and behavioural research, which investigates the social, economic, psychological and cultural determinants of health and disease with a view to promoting health and preventing disease. Often a multidisciplinary combination of the above kinds of research is needed to solve a health problem.... health research

All the means available for the operation of the health system, including manpower, buildings, equipment, supplies, funds, knowledge and technology.... health resources

The process of gathering, analysing and comparing an individual’s prognostic health characteristics with a standard age group, thereby predicting the likelihood that a person may develop a health problem.... health risk appraisal

A chemical, psychological, physiological, social, environmental or genetic factor or conditions that predisposes an individual to the development of a disease or injury.... health risk factor

The sector consisting of organized public and private health services (including health promotion, disease prevention, diagnostic, treatment and care services), the policies and activities of health departments and ministries, health-related nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and community groups, and professional associations.... health sector

Service performed by health care professionals, or by others under their direction, for the purpose of promoting, maintaining or restoring health.... health service

A geographic area designated on the basis of such factors as geography, political boundaries, population and health resources, for the effective planning and development of health services.... health service area

An o?cial, responsible to the United Kingdom’s parliament, appointed to protect the interests of National Health Service patients in matters concerning the administration of the health service and the delivery of health care (excluding clinical judgements). Known colloquially as the health ombudsman, the Commissioner presents regular reports on the complaints dealt with.... health service commissioner

The multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that studies how social factors, financing systems, organizational structures and processes, health technologies, and personal behaviours affect access to health care, the quality and cost of health care, and ultimately health and well-being. Its research domains are individuals, families, organizations, institutions, communities and populations.... health services research

An overall picture of the health status of a region, community or population, which includes measures taken to improve health, the resources devoted to health, an appreciation of specific health problems that require particular attention, and the degree of people’s awareness about their health and ways of improving it.... health situation

The state of health of an individual, group or population. It may be measured by obtaining proxies, such as people’s subjective assessments of their health; by one or more indicators of mortality and morbidity in the population, such as longevity; or by using the incidence or prevalence of major diseases (communicable, chronic or nutritional).... health status

A survey designed to provide information on the health status of a population. It may be descriptive, exploratory or explanatory.... health survey

Services, facilities, institutions, personnel or establishments, organizations and those operating them for the delivery of a variety of health programmes.... health system infrastructure

Research dealing with the entire health system or only part of it, the object being to ensure that the system is optimally planned and organized and that programmes are carried out by the health system infrastructure efficiently and effectively and with appropriate technology.... health systems research

A defined expected outcome generally based on specific and measurable changes.... health target

A group of persons working together, where each member of the team contributes, in accordance with his or her competence and skill and in coordination with the functions of the others, in order to achieve the maximum benefit for the care recipient.... health team

The application of scientific knowledge to solving health problems. Health technologies include pharmaceuticals, medical devices, procedures or surgical techniques and management, communication and information systems innovations.... health technology

The people, institutions and resources, arranged together in accordance with established policies, to improve the health of the population they serve, while responding to people’s legitimate expectations and protecting them against the cost of ill-health through a variety of activities, the primary intent of which is to improve health. Health systems fulfil three main functions: health care delivery, fair treatment of all, and meeting non-health expectations of the population. These functions are performed in the pursuit of three goals: health, responsiveness and fair financing. A health system is usually organized at various levels, starting at the community level or the primary level of health care and proceeding through the intermediate (district, regional or provincial) to the central level.... health system

The systematic evaluation of the properties, effects or other impacts of health care technology. HTA is intended to inform decision-makers about health technologies and may measure the direct or indirect consequences of a given technology or treatment.... health technology assessment (hta)

A picture of a health situation, referring also to what led up to it and to prospects for the future.... health trend

Health visitors are community nurses with a special training who form an important part of the primary health-care team. Working in close conjunction with general practitioners, they are primarily responsible for illness prevention and health screening and education of children and elderly people in the community.... health visitors

As the needs and demands of patients, and the costs of health care of populations, have risen sharply in recent years, governments and health-care providers – whether tax-funded, insurance-based, employer-provided or a mix of these – have had increasingly to face the dilemma of what services a country or a community can a?ord to provide. As a result, various techniques for deciding priorities of care and treatment are evolving. In the United Kingdom, priorities were for many years based on the decisions of individual clinicians who had wide freedom to prescribe the most appropriate care. Increasingly, this clinical freedom is being circumscribed by managerial, community and political decisions driven in part by the availability of resources and by what people want. Rationing services, however, is not popular and as yet no broadly agreed consensus has emerged, either in western Europe or in North America, as to how priorities can be decided that have broad community support and which can be a?orded. (See CLINICAL GOVERNANCE; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE.)... health-care priorities

A hospital which, not only provides high quality comprehensive medical and nursing services, but also develops a corporate identity that embraces the aims of health promotion; develops a health-promoting organizational structure and culture, including active, participatory roles for patients and all members of staff; develops itself into a health-promoting physical environment; and actively cooperates with its community.... health-promoting hospital

Individual outcome measure that extends beyond traditional measures of mortality and morbidity to include such dimensions as physiology, function, social activity, cognition, emotion, sleep and rest, energy and vitality, health perception and general life satisfaction (some of these are also known as health status, functional status or quality-of-life measures).... health-related quality-of-life (hrql) measure

The administrative machinery for planning, delivering and monitoring health care provided by health professionals and their supporting sta?. This may range from running a small primary-care centre to organising a large hospital or being responsible for meeting the health needs of a region or a nation. Whether the overall structure for proving care is state-funded, insurance-based, private-practice or a mixture of these, health-service management is essential in an era of rapidly evolving and expensive scienti?c medicine. Health-service managers are administrators with special training and skills in managing health care; sometimes they are doctors, nurses or other health professionals, but many have been trained in management in commercial, civil service or industrial environments.... health-service management

Herbal Medical

[catlist id=9 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]

... herbal medical

A public or private organization that provides home health services supervised by a licensed health professional in a person’s home, either directly or through arrangements with other organizations.... home health agency (hha) / home health care agency

A person who, under the supervision of a home health or social service agency, assists an older, ill or disabled person with household chores, bathing, personal care and other daily living needs. See also “community-based service”.... home health aide

See “domiciliary care”.... home health care / home care

Equipment, such as hospital beds, wheelchairs and prosthetics, provided by an agency and used at home.... home medical equipment

A service provided in the home by a home health agency or a residential services agency. It may be provided by personal care attendants or home health aides hired privately and informally, or through staff agencies or registries.... in home health service

Health services delivered on an inpatient basis in hospitals, nursing homes or other inpatient institutions. The term may also refer to services delivered on an outpatient basis by departments or other organizational units of such institutions, or sponsored by them.... institutional (care) health services

Launched in 1999 in England and Wales as CHI, this is an inspectorate charged with protecting patients from ‘unacceptable failings in the National Health Service’. A statutory body under the 1999 Health Act, it evaluates and re?nes local systems designed to safeguard standards of clinical quality. Working separately from the NHS and the health departments, it o?ers an independent safeguard that provides systems to monitor and improve clinical quality in primary care, community services and hospitals. As of 2004 it became responsible for dealing with patients’ complaints if they could not be settled by the trust concerned. The board members include health professionals, academics and eight lay members. Scotland has set up a similar statutory body. (See APPENDIX 7: STATUTORY ORGANISATIONS.)... healthcare commission (commission for health improvement)

Huang Jin Gui Tea, meaning “Golden Osmanthus”, is a type ofoolong tea, originating from the Fujian province of China. The drink earns its name through the golden liquor obtained after infusing the yellowish green leaves which offer the tea a distinct flowery honeysuckle aroma of Osmathus. The sweet flowery scent combines with a fruity flavour and complex refreshing taste. Huang Jin Gui Tea Brewing Huang Jin Gui Tea leaves allow multiple infusions, each of them providing a new character to the beverage. The brewing of Huang Jin Gui Tea should be made at a temperature of approximately 85 degrees Celsius. Allow two or three minutes for the steeping process in order to obtain a mild, smooth flavour. If brewed according to these instructions, Huang Jin Gui tea is low in caffeine. When to Drink Huang Jin Gui Tea A cup of Huang Jin Gui tea is suitable for drinking at any point during the day because it is only slightly oxidized and lacks the astringency of green tea. Its delightful light taste and floral aroma guarantee you will gladly enjoy several cups a day, discovering new layers of taste after every brew. You can serve it how or cold and benefit from the long lasting aftertaste and subtle hint of honey. Huang Jin Gui Tea Health Benefits Huang Jin Gui Tea brings a variety ofhealth benefits for the drinker, which include a valuable aid in the process of losing weight. Drinking Huang Jin Gui tea benefits your skin and strengthens your teeth. It is also a contributive factor in the prevention of cancer and heart disease and it helps improving the drinker’s metabolism and overall life quality. Huang Jin Gui tea helps reduce the blood sugar levels, which is beneficial for diabetic patients and last, but not least, it has a stress-relieving effect and it stimulates mental awareness. Huang Jin Gui Tea Side Effects As compared with the health benefits it brings, the side effects of Huang Jin Gui Tea are almost insignificant. The most common side effects are related to the large caffeine intake, which can lead to insomnia, dizziness, nausea, headaches or irregular heartbeat. Huang Jin Gui tea is not recommended for pregnant or nursing women and people who suffer from stomach ulcers, kidney or heart problems. Moreover, it is strongly advisable to consult with a specialist before includingHuang Jin Gui tea into your dietary plan, as the drink could interact with certain medications. Huang Jin Gui is a delicious variety of oolong tea with a rich, brisk taste that brings along an energy surplus. It is relatively easy to prepare and the leaves can be infused at least three times, surprising the drinker with each cup.... huang jin gui tea health benefits

A network of organizations, usually including hospitals and medical practitioner groups, that provides or arranges to provide a coordinated continuum of services to a defined population and is held both clinically and financially accountable for the outcomes in the populations served.... integrated delivery system / integrated services network (isn)

Classification of health and health-related domains that describe body functions and structures, activities and participation. The domains are classified from body, individual and societal perspectives. Since an individual’s functioning and disability occurs in a context, this classification includes a list of environmental factors.... international classification of functioning, disability and health (icf) a

A classification of diseases, conditions and other reasons for attendance for primary care. This classification is an adaptation of the ICD but makes allowance for the diagnostic uncertainty that prevails in primary care.... international classification of health problems in primary care (ichppc)

A list of diagnoses and identifying codes used by medical practitioners and other health care providers. The coding and terminology provide a uniform language that permits consistent communication on claim forms. Data from earlier time periods were coded using the appropriate revision of the ICD for that time period. Changes in classification of causes of death in successive revisions of the ICD may introduce discontinuities in cause of death statistics over time.... international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, tenth revision (icd-10)

The quantified expression of health status.... level of health

This process aims to reduce the costs of health care while maintaining its quality. The concept originated in the United States but has attracted interest in the United Kingdom and Europe, where the spiralling costs of health care have been causing widespread concern. Managed care works through changing clinical practice, but it is not a discrete entity: the American I. J. Iglehart has de?ned it as ‘a variety of methods of ?nancing and organising the delivery of comprehensive health care in which an attempt is made to control costs by controlling the provision of services’. Managed care has three facets: health policy; how that policy is managed; and how individuals needing health care are dealt with. The process and its applications are still evolving and it is likely that di?erent health-care systems will adapt it to suit their own particular circumstances.... managed health care

A system of databases designed to process and exchange information to support decision-making as well as implementation, monitoring and evaluation of programmes, activities and projects. See also “health information system”.... management information system

These are UK bodies that provide doctors with advice and, where appropriate, ?nancial support in defending claims for medical negligence in their clinical practice. They also advise doctors on all legal aspects of their work, including patients’ complaints, and provide representation for members called to account by the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC) or other regulatory body. The sharp rise in claims for medical negligence in the NHS in the 1980s persuaded the UK Health Departments to introduce a risk-pooling system called the Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts, and the defence societies liaise with this scheme when advising their doctor members on responding to claims of negligence (see MEDICAL LITIGATION; MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE).... medical defence organisations

An executive agency of the Department of Health in the UK. Set up in 1994, it is responsible for regulating and advising on the sale or use of any product, other than a medicine, used in the health-care environment for the diagnosis, prevention, monitoring or treatment of illness or disease. Equipment ranges from pacemakers (see CARDIAC PACEMAKER) to prostheses (see PROSTHESIS), and from syringes to magnetic resonance imaging (see (MRI).... medical devices agency

Medical Dictionary

[catlist id=11 numberposts=100 pagination=yes instance=2 orderby=title order=asc]

... medical dictionary

An error or omission in the medical care provided to an individual. Medical errors can occur in diagnosis, treatment, preventive monitoring or in the failure of a piece of medical equipment or another component of the medical system. Often, but not always, medical errors result in adverse events such as injury or death. See also “malpractice”; and “incidence monitoring and reporting”.... medical error

See INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE.... medical informatics

See ONCOLOGY.... medical oncology

The absence of psychiatric disorders or traits. It can be influenced by biological, environmental, emotional and cultural factors. This term is highly variable in definition, depending on time and place.... mental health

This term is used to de?ne the process of learning and knowledge-acquisition in the study of medicine. It also encompasses the expertise required to develop education and training for students and learners in all aspects of medical health care. Studies for undergraduate students, postgraduate students and individual health-care practitioners, from the initial stages to the ongoing development of a career in medicine or associated health ?elds, are also included in medical education. The word ‘pedagogy’ is sometimes applied to this process.

A range of research investigations has developed within medical education. These apply to course monitoring, audit, development and validation, assessment methodologies and the application of educationally appropriate principles at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Research is undertaken by medical educationalists whose backgrounds include teaching, social sciences and medicine and related health-care specialties, and who will hold a medical or general educational diploma, degree or other appropriate postgraduate quali?cation.

Development and validation for all courses are an important part of continuing accreditation processes. The relatively conservative courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including diplomas and postgraduate quali?cations awarded by the specialist medical royal colleges (responsible for standards of specialist education) and universities, have undergone a range of reassessment and rede?nition driven by the changing needs of the individual practitioner in the last decade. The stimuli to change aspects of medical training have come from the government through the former Chief Medical O?cer, Sir Kenneth Calman, and the introduction of new approaches to specialist training (the Calman programme), from the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC) and its document Tomorrow’s Doctors, as well as from the profession itself through the activities of the British Medical Association and the medical royal colleges. The evolving expectations of the public in their perception of the requirements of a doctor, and changes in education of other groups of health professionals, have also led to pressures for changes.

Consequently, many new departments and units devoted to medical education within university medical schools, royal colleges and elsewhere within higher education have been established. These developments have built upon practice developed elsewhere in the world, particularly in North America, Australia and some European countries. Undergraduate education has seen application of new educational methods, including Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester; clinical and communications skills teaching; early patient contact; and the extensive adoption of Internet (World Wide Web) support and Computer-Aided Learning (CAL). In postgraduate education – driven by European directives and practices, changes in specialist training and the needs of community medicine – new courses have developed around the membership and fellowship examinations for the royal colleges. Examples of these changes driven by medical education expertise include the STEP course for the Royal College of Surgeons of England, and distance-learning courses for diplomas in primary care and rheumatology, as well as examples of good practice as adopted by the Royal College of General Practitioners.

Continuing Professional Development (CPD) and Continuing Medical Education (CME) are also important aspects of medical education now being developed in the United Kingdom, and are evolving to meet the needs of individuals at all stages of their careers.

Bodies closely involved in medical educational developments and their review include the General Medical Council, SCOPME (the Standing Committee on Postgraduate Medical Education), all the medical royal colleges and medical schools, and the British Medical Association through its Board of Medical Education. The National Health Service (NHS) is also involved in education and is a key to facilitation of CPD/CME as the major employer of doctors within the United Kingdom.

Several learned societies embrace medical education at all levels. These include ASME (the Association for the Study of Medical Education), MADEN (the Medical and Dental Education Network) and AMEE (the Association for Medical Education in Europe). Specialist journals are devoted to research reports relating to medical educational developments

(e.g. Academic Medicine, Health Care Education, Medical Education). The more general medical journals (e.g. British Medical Journal, New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons) also carry articles on educational matters. Finally, the World Wide Web (WWW) is a valuable source of information relating to courses and course development and other aspects of modern medical education.

The UK government, which controls the number of students entering medical training, has recently increased the quota to take account of increasing demands for trained sta? from the NHS. More than 5,700 students – 3,300 women and 2,400 men – are now entering UK medical schools annually with nearly 28,600 at medical school in any one year, and an attrition rate of about 8–10 per cent. This loss may in part be due to the changes in university-funding arrangements. Students now pay all or part of their tuition fees, and this can result in medical graduates owing several thousand pounds when they qualify at the end of their ?ve-year basic quali?cation course. Doctors wishing to specialise need to do up to ?ve years (sometimes more) of salaried ‘hands-on’ training in house or registrar (intern) posts.

Though it may be a commonly held belief that most students enter medicine for humanitarian reasons rather than for the ?nancial rewards of a successful medical career, in developed nations the prospect of status and rewards is probably one incentive. However, the cost to students of medical education along with the widespread publicity in Britain about an under-resourced, seriously overstretched health service, with sta? working long hours and dealing with a rising number of disgruntled patients, may be affecting recruitment, since the number of applicants for medical school has dropped in the past year or so. Although there is still competition for places, planners need to bear this falling trend in mind.

Another factor to be considered for the future is the nature of the medical curriculum. In Britain and western Europe, the age structure of a probably declining population will become top-heavy with senior citizens. In the ?nancial interests of the countries affected, and in the personal interests of an ageing population, it would seem sensible to raise the pro?le of preventive medicine – traditionally rather a Cinderella subject – in medical education, thus enabling people to live healthier as well as longer lives. While learning about treatments is essential, the increasing specialisation and subspecialisation of medicine in order to provide expensive, high-technology care to a population, many of whom are suffering from preventable illnesses originating in part from self-indulgent lifestyles, seems insupportable economically, unsatisfactory for patients awaiting treatment, and not necessarily professionally ful?lling for health-care sta?. To change the mix of medical education would be a di?cult long-term task but should be worthwhile for providers and recipients of medical care.... medical education

Legal action taken by an individual or group of individuals, usually patients, against hospitals, health-service providers or health professionals in respect of alleged inadequacies in the provision of health care.

In the hospital service, claims for clinical negligence have risen enormously since the 1970s. In 1975 the NHS spent about £1m a year on legal claims; by 2004 the NHS faced over £2 billion in outstanding claims. In 1995 a risk-pooling Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts (CNST) was set up in England, and is administered by the NHS Litigation Authority. NHS trusts are expected to follow a set of risk-management standards, the ?rst being that each trust should have a written risk-management strategy with an explicit commitment to managing clinical risk (see RISK MANAGEMENT).... medical litigation

Emotional and behavioural problems are common in children and adolescents, affecting up to one-?fth at any one time. But these problems are often not clear-cut, and they may come and go as the child develops and meets new challenges in life. If a child or teenager has an emotional problem that persists for weeks rather than days and is associated with disturbed behaviour, he or she may have a recognisable mental health disorder.

Anxiety, phobias and depression are fairly common. For instance, surveys show that up to

2.5 per cent of children and 8 per cent of adolescents are depressed at any one time, and by the age of 18 a quarter will have been depressed at least once. Problems such as OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (HYPERACTIVITY SYNDROME), AUTISM, ASPERGER’S SYNDROME and SCHIZOPHRENIA are rare.

Mental-health problems may not be obvious at ?rst, because children often express distress through irritability, poor concentration, dif?cult behaviour, or physical symptoms. Physical symptoms of distress, such as unexplained headache and stomach ache, may persuade parents to keep children at home on school days. This may be appropriate occasionally, but regularly avoiding school can lead to a persistent phobia called school refusal.

If a parent, teacher or other person is worried that a child or teenager may have a mental-health problem, the ?rst thing to do is to ask the child gently if he or she is worried about anything. Listening, reassuring and helping the child to solve any speci?c problems may well be enough to help the child feel settled again. Serious problems such as bullying and child abuse need urgent professional involvement.

Children with emotional problems will usually feel most comfortable talking to their parents, while adolescents may prefer to talk to friends, counsellors, or other mentors. If this doesn’t work, and if the symptoms persist for weeks rather than days, it may be necessary to seek additional help through school or the family’s general practitioner. This may lead to the child and family being assessed and helped by a psychologist, or, less commonly, by a child psychiatrist. Again, listening and counselling will be the main forms of help o?ered. For outright depression, COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY and, rarely, antidepressant drugs may be used.... mental health problems in children

This National Health Service initiative went online in November 2000. It aims to provide health professionals with easy and fast access to best current knowledge from medical journals, professional group guidelines, etc. Unbiased data can be accessed by both clinicians and the public.... national electronic library for health

Information, usually in the form of indicators, a country may collect on its health expenditures. Indicators may include total health expenditure, public expenditure, private expenditure, out-of-pocket expenditure, tax-funded and other public expenditure, and social security expenditure.... national health accounts

See “health policy”.... national health policy

The United Kingdom’s National Health Service was created by Act of Parliament and inaugurated on 5 July 1948. Its original aim was to provide a comprehensive system of health care to everyone, free at the point of delivery. Scotland had its own, similar legislation, as did Northern Ireland. The service is funded by National Insurance contributions and from general taxation, with a small amount from patient charges. The structure, functioning and ?nancing of the NHS have been – and still are – undergoing substantial changes.... national health service (nhs)

A National Health Service body intended to combat the increasing threat from infectious diseases and biological, chemical and radiological hazards. Covering England, the agency includes the Public Health Laboratory Service, the National Radiological Protection Board, the Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research, and the National Focus Group for Chemical Incidents.... national infection control and health protection agency

Comprehensive mental health services, as generally defined under some national (or state) laws and statutes, include: inpatient care, outpatient care, day care and other partial hospitalization and emergency services; specialized services for the mental health of the elderly; consultation and education services and specialized programmes for the prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of alcohol and drug abusers. They generally include a variety of services provided to people of all ages, including counselling, psychotherapy, psychiatric services, crisis intervention and support groups. Issues addressed include depression, grief, anxiety and stress, as well as severe mental illnesses.... mental health services

See “community health centre”.... neighbourhood health centre

The following conditions are discussed under their individual headings: APHASIA; BRAIN, DISEASES OF; CATALEPSY; CHOREA; CRAMP; EPILEPSY; HYSTERIA; LEARNING DISABILITY; MEMORY; MENTAL ILLNESS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS); NERVES, INJURIES TO; NEURALGIA; NEURITIS; PARALYSIS; PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES; SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF; STROKE; TABES.... nervous system, disorders of

Health services concerned with the physical, mental and social well-being of an individual in relation to his/her working environment and with the adjustment of individuals to their work. The term applies to more than the safety of the workplace and includes health and job satisfaction.... occupational health services

Occupational health The e?ect of work on human health, and the impact of workers’ health on their work. Although the term encompasses the identi?cation and treatment of speci?c occupational diseases, occupational health is also an applied and multidisciplinary subject concerned with the prevention of occupational ill-health caused by chemical, biological, physical and psychosocial factors, and the promotion of a healthy and productive workforce.

Occupational health includes both mental and physical health. It is about compliance with health-and-safety-at-work legislation (and common law duties) and about best practice in providing work environments that reduce risks to health and safety to lowest practicable levels. It includes workers’ ?tness to work, as well as the management of the work environment to accommodate people with disabilities, and procedures to facilitate the return to work of those absent with long-term illness. Occupational health incorporates several professional groups, including occupational physicians, occupational health nurses, occupational hygienists, ergonomists, disability managers, workplace counsellors, health-and-safety practitioners, and workplace physiotherapists.

In the UK, two key statutes provide a framework for occupational health: the Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974 (HSW Act); and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA). The HSW Act states that employers have a duty to protect the health, safety and welfare of their employees and to conduct their business in a way that does not expose others to risks to their health and safety. Employees and self-employed people also have duties under the Act. Modern health-and-safety legislation focuses on assessing and controlling risk rather than prescribing speci?c actions in di?erent industrial settings. Various regulations made under the HSW Act, such as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, the Manual Handling Operations Regulations and the Noise at Work Regulations, set out duties with regard to di?erent risks, but apply to all employers and follow the general principles of risk assessment and control. Risks should be controlled principally by removing or reducing the hazard at source (for example, by substituting chemicals with safer alternatives, replacing noisy machinery, or automating tasks to avoid heavy lifting). Personal protective equipment, such as gloves and ear defenders, should be seen as a last line of defence after other control measures have been put in place.

The employment provisions of the DDA require employers to avoid discriminatory practice towards disabled people and to make reasonable adjustments to working arrangements where a disabled person is placed at a substantial disadvantage to a non-disabled person. Although the DDA does not require employers to provide access to rehabilitation services – even for those injured or made ill at work – occupational-health practitioners may become involved in programmes to help people get back to work after injury or long-term illness, and many businesses see the retention of valuable sta? as an attractive alternative to medical retirement or dismissal on health grounds.

Although a major part of occupational-health practice is concerned with statutory compliance, the workplace is also an important venue for health promotion. Many working people rarely see their general practitioner and, even when they do, there is little time to discuss wider health issues. Occupational-health advisers can ?ll in this gap by providing, for example, workplace initiatives on stopping smoking, cardiovascular health, diet and self-examination for breast and testicular cancers. Such initiatives are encouraged because of the perceived bene?ts to sta?, to the employing organisation and to the wider public-health agenda. Occupational psychologists recognise the need for the working population to achieve a ‘work-life balance’ and the promotion of this is an increasing part of occupational health strategies.

The law requires employers to consult with their sta? on health-and-safety matters. However, there is also a growing understanding that successful occupational-health management involves workers directly in the identi?cation of risks and in developing solutions in the workplace. Trade unions play an active role in promoting occupational health through local and national campaigns and by training and advising elected workplace safety representatives.

Occupational medicine The branch of medicine that deals with the control, prevention, diagnosis, treatment and management of ill-health and injuries caused or made worse by work, and with ensuring that workers are ?t for the work they do.

Occupational medicine includes: statutory surveillance of workers’ exposure to hazardous agents; advice to employers and employees on eliminating or reducing risks to health and safety at work; diagnosis and treatment/management of occupational illness; advice on adapting the working environment to suit the worker, particularly those with disabilities or long-term health problems; and advice on the return to work and, if necessary, rehabilitation of workers absent through illness. Occupational physicians may play a wider role in monitoring the health of workplace populations and in advising employers on controlling health hazards where ill-health trends are observed. They may also conduct epidemiological research (see EPIDEMIOLOGY) on workplace diseases.

Because of the occupational physician’s dual role as adviser to both employer and employee, he or she is required to be particularly diligent with regards to the individual worker’s medical CONFIDENTIALITY. Occupational physicians need to recognise in any given situation the context they are working in, and to make sure that all parties are aware of this.

Occupational medicine is a medical discipline and thus is only part of the broader ?eld of occupational health. Although there are some speci?c clinical duties associated with occupational medicine, such as diagnosis of occupational disease and medical screening, occupational physicians are frequently part of a multidisciplinary team that might include, for example, occupational-health nurses, healthand-safety advisers, ergonomists, counsellors and hygienists. Occupational physicians are medical practitioners with a post-registration quali?cation in occupational medicine. They will have completed a period of supervised in-post training. In the UK, the Faculty of Occupational Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians has three categories of membership, depending on quali?cations and experience: associateship (AFOM); membership (MFOM); and fellowship (FFOM).

Occupational diseases Occupational diseases are illnesses that are caused or made worse by work. In their widest sense, they include physical and mental ill-health conditions.

In diagnosing an occupational disease, the clinician will need to examine not just the signs and symptoms of ill-health, but also the occupational history of the patient. This is important not only in discovering the cause, or causes, of the disease (work may be one of a number of factors), but also in making recommendations on how the work should be modi?ed to prevent a recurrence – or, if necessary, in deciding whether or not the worker is able to return to that type of work. The occupational history will help in deciding whether or not other workers are also at risk of developing the condition. It will include information on:

the nature of the work.

how the tasks are performed in practice.

the likelihood of exposure to hazardous agents (physical, chemical, biological and psychosocial).

what control measures are in place and the extent to which these are adhered to.

previous occupational and non-occupational exposures.

whether or not others have reported similar symptoms in relation to the work. Some conditions – certain skin conditions,

for example – may show a close relationship to work, with symptoms appearing directly only after exposure to particular agents or possibly disappearing at weekends or with time away from work. Others, however, may be chronic and can have serious long-term implications for a person’s future health and employment.

Statistical information on the prevalence of occupational disease in the UK comes from a variety of sources, including o?cial ?gures from the Industrial Injuries Scheme (see below) and statutory reporting of occupational disease (also below). Neither of these o?cial schemes provides a representative picture, because the former is restricted to certain prescribed conditions and occupations, and the latter suffers from gross under-reporting. More useful are data from the various schemes that make up the Occupational Diseases Intelligence Network (ODIN) and from the Labour Force Survey (LFS). ODIN data is generated by the systematic reporting of work-related conditions by clinicians and includes several schemes. Under one scheme, more than 80 per cent of all reported diseases by occupational-health physicians fall into just six of the 42 clinical disease categories: upper-limb disorders; anxiety, depression and stress disorders; contact DERMATITIS; lower-back problems; hearing loss (see DEAFNESS); and ASTHMA. Information from the LFS yields a similar pattern in terms of disease frequency. Its most recent survey found that over 2 million people believed that, in the previous 12 months, they had suffered from an illness caused or made worse by work and that

19.5 million working days were lost as a result. The ten most frequently reported disease categories were:

stress and mental ill-health (see MENTAL ILLNESS): 515,000 cases.

back injuries: 508,000.

upper-limb and neck disorders: 375,000.

lower respiratory disease: 202,000.

deafness, TINNITUS or other ear conditions: 170,000.

lower-limb musculoskeletal conditions: 100,000.

skin disease: 66,000.

headache or ‘eyestrain’: 50,000.

traumatic injury (includes wounds and fractures from violent attacks at work): 34,000.

vibration white ?nger (hand-arm vibration syndrome): 36,000. A person who develops a chronic occu

pational disease may be able to sue his or her employer for damages if it can be shown that the employer was negligent in failing to take reasonable care of its employees, or had failed to provide a system of work that would have prevented harmful exposure to a known health hazard. There have been numerous successful claims (either awarded in court, or settled out of court) for damages for back and other musculoskeletal injuries, hand-arm vibration syndrome, noise-induced deafness, asthma, dermatitis, MESOTHELIOMA and ASBESTOSIS. Employers’ liability (workers’ compensation) insurers are predicting that the biggest future rise in damages claims will be for stress-related illness. In a recent study, funded by the Health and Safety Executive, about 20 per cent of all workers – more than 5 million people in the UK – claimed to be ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ stressed at work – a statistic that is likely to have a major impact on the long-term health of the working population.

While victims of occupational disease have the right to sue their employers for damages, many countries also operate a system of no-fault compensation for the victims of prescribed occupational diseases. In the UK, more than 60 diseases are prescribed under the Industrial Injuries Scheme and a person will automatically be entitled to state compensation for disability connected to one of these conditions, provided that he or she works in one of the occupations for which they are prescribed. The following short list gives an indication of the types of diseases and occupations prescribed under the scheme:

CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME connected to the use of hand-held vibrating tools.

hearing loss from (amongst others) use of pneumatic percussive tools and chainsaws, working in the vicinity of textile manufacturing or woodworking machines, and work in ships’ engine rooms.

LEPTOSPIROSIS – infection with Leptospira (various listed occupations).

viral HEPATITIS from contact with human blood, blood products or other sources of viral hepatitis.

LEAD POISONING, from any occupation causing exposure to fumes, dust and vapour from lead or lead products.

asthma caused by exposure to, among other listed substances, isocyanates, curing agents, solder ?ux fumes and insects reared for research.

mesothelioma from exposure to asbestos.

In the UK, employers and the self-employed have a duty to report all occupational injuries (if the employee is o? work for three days or more as a result), diseases or dangerous incidents to the relevant enforcing authority (the Health and Safety Executive or local-authority environmental-health department) under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR). Despite this statutory duty, comparatively few diseases are reported so that ?gures generated from RIDDOR reports do not give a useful indication of the scale of occupational diseases in the UK. The statutory reporting of injuries is much better, presumably because of the clear and acute relationship between a workplace accident and the resultant injury. More than 160,000 injuries are reported under RIDDOR every year compared with just 2,500 or so occupational diseases, a gross underestimate of the true ?gure.

There are no precise ?gures for the number of people who die prematurely because of work-related ill-health, and it would be impossible to gauge the exact contribution that work has on, for example, cardiovascular disease and cancers where the causes are multifactorial. The toll would, however, dwarf the number of deaths caused by accidents at work. Around 250 people are killed by accidents at work in the UK each year – mesothelioma, from exposure to asbestos at work, alone kills more than 1,300 people annually.

The following is a sample list of occupational diseases, with brief descriptions of their aetiologies.

Inhaled materials

PNEUMOCONIOSIS covers a group of diseases which cause ?brotic lung disease following the inhalation of dust. Around 250–300 new cases receive bene?t each year – mostly due to coal dust with or without silica contamination. SILICOSIS is the more severe disease. The contraction in the size of the coal-mining industry as well as improved dust suppression in the mines have diminished the importance of this disease, whereas asbestos-related diseases now exceed 1,000 per year. Asbestos ?bres cause a restrictive lung disease but also are responsible for certain malignant conditions such as pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma and lung cancer. The lung-cancer risk is exacerbated by cigarette-smoking.

Even though the use of asbestos is virtually banned in the UK, many workers remain at risk of exposure because of the vast quantities present in buildings (much of which is not listed in building plans). Carpenters, electricians, plumbers, builders and demolition workers are all liable to exposure from work that disturbs existing asbestos. OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA is of increasing importance – not only because of the recognition of new allergic agents (see ALLERGY), but also in the number of reported cases. The following eight substances are most frequently linked to occupational asthma (key occupations in brackets): isocyanates (spray painters, electrical processors); ?our and grain (bakers and farmers); wood dust (wood workers); glutaraldehyde (nurses, darkroom technicians); solder/colophony (welders, electronic assembly workers); laboratory animals (technicians, scientists); resins and glues (metal and electrical workers, construction, chemical processors); and latex (nurses, auxiliaries, laboratory technicians).

The disease develops after a short, symptomless period of exposure; symptoms are temporally related to work exposures and relieved by absences from work. Removal of the worker from exposure does not necessarily lead to complete cessation of symptoms. For many agents, there is no relationship with a previous history of ATOPY. Occupational asthma accounts for about 10 per cent of all asthma cases. DERMATITIS The risk of dermatitis caused by an allergic or irritant reaction to substances used or handled at work is present in a wide variety of jobs. About three-quarters of cases are irritant contact dermatitis due to such agents as acids, alkalis and solvents. Allergic contact dermatitis is a more speci?c response by susceptible individuals to a range of allergens (see ALLERGEN). The main occupational contact allergens include chromates, nickel, epoxy resins, rubber additives, germicidal agents, dyes, topical anaesthetics and antibiotics as well as certain plants and woods. Latex gloves are a particular cause of occupational dermatitis among health-care and laboratory sta? and have resulted in many workers being forced to leave their profession through ill-health. (See also SKIN, DISEASES OF.)

Musculoskeletal disorders Musculoskeletal injuries are by far the most common conditions related to work (see LFS ?gures, above) and the biggest cause of disability. Although not all work-related, musculoskeletal disorders account for 36.5 per cent of all disabilities among working-age people (compared with less than 4 per cent for sight and hearing impairment). Back pain (all causes – see BACKACHE) has been estimated to cause more than 50 million days lost every year in sickness absence and costs the UK economy up to £5 billion annually as a result of incapacity or disability. Back pain is a particular problem in the health-care sector because of the risk of injury from lifting and moving patients. While the emphasis should be on preventing injuries from occurring, it is now well established that the best way to manage most lower-back injuries is to encourage the patient to continue as normally as possible and to remain at work, or to return as soon as possible even if the patient has some residual back pain. Those who remain o? work on long-term sick leave are far less likely ever to return to work.

Aside from back injuries, there are a whole range of conditions affecting the upper limbs, neck and lower limbs. Some have clear aetiologies and clinical signs, while others are less well de?ned and have multiple causation. Some conditions, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, are prescribed diseases in certain occupations; however, they are not always caused by work (pregnant and older women are more likely to report carpal tunnel syndrome irrespective of work) and clinicians need to be careful when assigning work as the cause without ?rst considering the evidence. Other conditions may be revealed or made worse by work – such as OSTEOARTHRITIS in the hand. Much attention has focused on injuries caused by repeated movement, excessive force, and awkward postures and these include tenosynovitis (in?ammation of a tendon) and epicondylitis. The greatest controversy surrounds upper-limb disorders that do not present obvious tissue or nerve damage but nevertheless give signi?cant pain and discomfort to the individual. These are sometimes referred to as ‘repetitive strain injury’ or ‘di?use RSI’. The diagnosis of such conditions is controversial, making it di?cult for sufferers to pursue claims for compensation through the courts. Psychosocial factors, such as high demands of the job, lack of control and poor social support at work, have been implicated in the development of many upper-limb disorders, and in prevention and management it is important to deal with the psychological as well as the physical risk factors. Occupations known to be at particular risk of work-related upper-limb disorders include poultry processors, packers, electronic assembly workers, data processors, supermarket check-out operators and telephonists. These jobs often contain a number of the relevant exposures of dynamic load, static load, a full or excessive range of movements and awkward postures. (See UPPER LIMB DISORDERS.)

Physical agents A number of physical agents cause occupational ill-health of which the most important is occupational deafness. Workplace noise exposures in excess of 85 decibels for a working day are likely to cause damage to hearing which is initially restricted to the vital frequencies associated with speech – around 3–4 kHz. Protection from such noise is imperative as hearing aids do nothing to ameliorate the neural damage once it has occurred.

Hand-arm vibration syndrome is a disorder of the vascular and/or neural endings in the hands leading to episodic blanching (‘white ?nger’) and numbness which is exacerbated by low temperature. The condition, which is caused by vibrating tools such as chain saws and pneumatic hammers, is akin to RAYNAUD’S DISEASE and can be disabling.

Decompression sickness is caused by a rapid change in ambient pressure and is a disease associated with deep-sea divers, tunnel workers and high-?ying aviators. Apart from the direct effects of pressure change such as ruptured tympanic membrane or sinus pain, the more serious damage is indirectly due to nitrogen bubbles appearing in the blood and blocking small vessels. Central and peripheral nervous-system damage and bone necrosis are the most dangerous sequelae.

Radiation Non-ionising radiation from lasers or microwaves can cause severe localised heating leading to tissue damage of which cataracts (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF) are a particular variety. Ionising radiation from radioactive sources can cause similar acute tissue damage to the eyes as well as cell damage to rapidly dividing cells in the gut and bone marrow. Longer-term effects include genetic damage and various malignant disorders of which LEUKAEMIA and aplastic ANAEMIA are notable. Particular radioactive isotopes may destroy or induce malignant change in target organs, for example, 131I (thyroid), 90Sr (bone). Outdoor workers may also be at risk of sunburn and skin cancers. OTHER OCCUPATIONAL CANCERS Occupation is directly responsible for about 5 per cent of all cancers and contributes to a further 5 per cent. Apart from the cancers caused by asbestos and ionising radiation, a number of other occupational exposures can cause human cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer regularly reviews the evidence for carcinogenicity of compounds and industrial processes, and its published list of carcinogens is widely accepted as the current state of knowledge. More than 50 agents and processes are listed as class 1 carcinogens. Important occupational carcinogens include asbestos (mesothelioma, lung cancer); polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons such as mineral oils, soots, tars (skin and lung cancer); the aromatic amines in dyestu?s (bladder cancer); certain hexavalent chromates, arsenic and nickel re?ning (lung cancer); wood and leather dust (nasal sinus cancer); benzene (leukaemia); and vinyl chloride monomer (angiosarcoma of the liver). It has been estimated that elimination of all known occupational carcinogens, if possible, would lead to an annual saving of 5,000 premature deaths in Britain.

Infections Two broad categories of job carry an occupational risk. These are workers in contact with animals (farmers, veterinary surgeons and slaughtermen) and those in contact with human sources of infection (health-care sta? and sewage workers).

Occupational infections include various zoonoses (pathogens transmissible from animals to humans), such as ANTHRAX, Borrelia burgdorferi (LYME DISEASE), bovine TUBERCULOSIS, BRUCELLOSIS, Chlamydia psittaci, leptospirosis, ORF virus, Q fever, RINGWORM and Streptococcus suis. Human pathogens that may be transmissible at work include tuberculosis, and blood-borne pathogens such as viral hepatitis (B and C) and HIV (see AIDS/HIV). Health-care workers at risk of exposure to infected blood and body ?uids should be immunised against hapatitis B.

Poisoning The incidence of occupational poisonings has diminished with the substitution of noxious chemicals with safer alternatives, and with the advent of improved containment. However, poisonings owing to accidents at work are still reported, sometimes with fatal consequences. Workers involved in the application of pesticides are particularly at risk if safe procedures are not followed or if equipment is faulty. Exposure to organophosphate pesticides, for example, can lead to breathing diffculties, vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal cramps, and to other neurological effects including confusion and dizziness. Severe poisonings can lead to death. Exposure can be through ingestion, inhalation and dermal (skin) contact.

Stress and mental health Stress is an adverse reaction to excessive pressures or demands and, in occupational-health terms, is di?erent from the motivational impact often associated with challenging work (some refer to this as ‘positive stress’). Stress at work is often linked to increasing demands on workers, although coping can often prevent the development of stress. The causes of occupational stress are multivariate and encompass job characteristics (e.g. long or unsocial working hours, high work demands, imbalance between e?ort and reward, poorly managed organisational change, lack of control over work, poor social support at work, fear of redundancy and bullying), as well as individual factors (such as personality type, personal circumstances, coping strategies, and availability of psychosocial support outside work). Stress may in?uence behaviours such as smoking, alcohol consumption, sleep and diet, which may in turn affect people’s health. Stress may also have direct effects on the immune system (see IMMUNITY) and lead to a decline in health. Stress may also alter the course and response to treatment of conditions such as cardiovascular disease. As well as these general effects of stress, speci?c types of disorder may be observed.

Exposure to extremely traumatic incidents at work – such as dealing with a major accident involving multiple loss of life and serious injury

(e.g. paramedics at the scene of an explosion or rail crash) – may result in a chronic condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is an abnormal psychological reaction to a traumatic event and is characterised by extreme psychological discomfort, such as anxiety or panic when reminded of the causative event; sufferers may be plagued with uncontrollable memories and can feel as if they are going through the trauma again. PTSD is a clinically de?ned condition in terms of its symptoms and causes and should not be used to include normal short-term reactions to trauma.... occupational health, medicine and diseases

The optimal state of the mouth and normal functioning of the organs of the mouth without evidence of disease.... oral health

See “integrated delivery system”.... organized delivery system

The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion of 1986 identifies three basic strategies for health promotion. These are advocacy for health to create essential conditions for health; enabling all people to achieve their full health potential; and mediating between the different interests in society in the pursuit of health. These strategies are supported by five priority action areas: build health public policy; create supportive environments for health; strengthen community action for health; develop personal skills; and reorient health services.... ottawa charter for health promotion

Oolong tea, literally meaning “Black Dragon”, is a traditional Chinese beverage which undergoes a unique preparation process resulting in a reddish drink with a slightly sweet delicate flavour. Oolong tea is partially fermented, unlike black tea, which is fully fermented, or green tea, which is unfermented. Oolong Tea Brewing Oolong tea requires a higher brewingtemperature in order to extract the complex aromas of the tea leaves. It is recommended to use spring or filtered water heated at a temperature of approximately 90 degrees Celsius. The steeping process for most Oolong teas should last no longer than five minutes. If this period is extended for too long, it may ruin the delicate aromas and turn your cup of tea unpleasantly bitter. Oolong teas are best served plain, but you can add milk, sugar, honey or lemon according to your taste. Oolong Tea Health Benefits Oolong tea, a hybrid between black and green tea, has numerous health benefits, especially if consumed regularly. Drinking Oolong tea stimulates brain activity and relieves mental and physical stress. Oolong tea has the potential of reducing high blood pressure, lowering blood sugar levels and preventing serious afflictions like obesity, osteoporosis, tooth decay, cancer or heart disease. Oolong tea accelerates the metabolism and promotes weight loss. Another health benefit of Oolong tea is its effectiveness in treating skin problems such as eczema and rashes and combating skin aging. Oolong Tea Side Effects Although drinking Oolong tea is extremely beneficial for the body, it can also lead to unpleasant side effects when consumed in large quantities, therefore moderation is required. These side effects include sleeping difficulties, anxiety or irritability, most of them related to excessive caffeine intake. It is not recommended for pregnant women and people suffering from kidney disorders. Furthermore, oolong tea has been proven to interact with certain medications; therefore, people who undertake treatment are advised to consult a health care provider first. Oolong tea is extremely effective in keeping your energy levels up, due to its caffeine content, and it also increases brain function, helping you maintain active and aware throughout the day.... oolong tea health benefits, side effects and brewing

Orange Spice Tea is a complex, full-flavored type of black tea, kindly recommended to beginner consumers of tea blends. It is a largely-appreciated tea, having an old acknowledged tradition, its first production being placed in the 19^th century. Orange Spice Tea description. Orange Spice Tea is another variety of black tea mixed with orange zest or dried peel, together with a combination of spices, such as: cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and allspice. It has been noticed that any number of spice combination is possible. Orange Spice Tea is usually caffeine-free, being thus, a good tea to consume at any time of the day or even night.  It can be drunk hot or as an iced tea beverage, with or without adding milk or honey. Orange Spice Tea is recommended to be one of the best choices for those not yet accustomed to gourmet tea blends. It is typically available as loose leaves or as bag forms and is often found in gourmet tea shops, health stores or on grocery shelves. Orange Spice Tea recipe The abovementioned tea has a delicate taste and is also a good ingredient to be included in the daily diet, due to its healthy properties. It can be consumed both as beverage, or can be added to different cookies recipes. To brew Orange Spice Tea:

• Fill a teapot with about 16 ounces of water
• Boil the water
• Place about two tablespoons of the leaves in a teapot
• Take the pot out of the water
• Let the mix stand for about 5 to 7 minutes
• Strain and drink it slowly

To include Orange Spice Tea in sweets recipes, grind the tea leaves and mix them with the dough, together with the ingredients. Orange Spice Tea benefits Orange Spice Tea gathers the benefits of black tea, citrus and spices:

• strengthens the immune system
• helps lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases
• helps in the prevention of certain cancers
• contributes to preventing colds, cough and flu
• helps in calming and relaxing the senses
• stimulates blood circulation
• increases concentration and memory levels
• warms the body (especially during winter)

Orange Spice Tea side effects Rarely,Orange Spice Teaconsumers experienced stomach aches or the syndrome of upset stomach. Patients suffering from gastritis are advised to intake a low quantity of Orange Spice Tea. Orange Spice Tea clusters the benefits and taste of black tea, citron and a large array of spices. It is intensely consumed by connoisseurs and novices, especially due to its health contributions and proven energy booster actions.... orange spice tea: a mixture for health

A voluntary agreement between two or more partners to work cooperatively towards a set of shared health outcomes.... partnership for health promotion

A system that is based on incorporating divergent provider modalities (e.g. public, private, non-profit, etc.).... pluralistic system

A state of health beyond an asymptomatic state. It usually includes the quality of life and the potential of the human condition. It may also include self-fulfilment, vitality for living and creativity. It is concerned with thriving rather than merely coping. See also “health”.... positive health

Sometimes called primary medical care, this is the care provided by a GENERAL PRACTITIONER (GP) – traditionally entitled the family doctor – or other health professionals who have ?rst contact with a patient needing or wanting medical attention. In the NHS, the primary health-care services include those provided by the general, dental, ophthalmic and pharmaceutical services as well as the family doctor service. Community health services provided outside the hospitals also o?er some primary health care.... primary health care

The use of digital imaging systems to replace conventional X-ray pictures and other imaging techniques. Though expensive to operate, digital imaging and storage systems o?er promising possibilities for transmission of clinical images within and between hospitals and community health-care units, providing fast access and remote working that will bene?t patients and health-care sta? alike. When security and con?dentiality are assured, images could be transferred via the Internet and teleradiology. In future, hospitals might be able to eliminate the costly physical transfer and storage of X-ray ?lms. The integration of PACS with hospital information systems in the NHS will (hopefully) facilitate the introduction of electronic radiology.... picture archiving and communications system (pacs)

The provision of medical and dental care to patients who pay for the care either directly, through private medical insurance, or through employer-funded private insurance. In the UK, most patients are treated and cared for by the community- or hospital-based NHS. Although not forbidden to do so, few NHS general practitioners see private patients. NHS consultants are – within certain prescribed circumstances – allowed to treat private patients and many, especially surgeons, do so; but consultations and treatment are usually done on private-health premises. Some NHS hospitals have private facilities attached, but most private care is carried out in separate, privately run clinics and hospitals.

Certain specialties – for example, orthopaedic and reconstructive/cosmetic surgery and mental health – attract more private patients than others, such as paediatrics or medicine for the elderly. The standards of clinical care are generally the same in the two systems, but private patients can see the specialist of their choice at a time convenient to them. Waiting times for consultations and treatment are short and, when in hospital, private patients usually have their own room, telephone, TV, open visiting hours, etc.

A substantial proportion of private medical-care services are those provided for elderly people requiring regular nursing care and some medical supervision. The distinction between residential care and nursing care for the elderly is often blurred, but the government policy of providing means-tested state funding only for people genuinely needing regular nursing care – a system operated by local-authority social-service departments in England and Wales – has necessitated clearer de?nitions of the facilities provided for the elderly by private organisations. The strict criteria for state support (especially in England), the budget-conscious approach of local authorities when negotiating fees with private nursing homes, and the fact that NHS hospital trusts also have to pay for some patients discharged to such homes (to free-up hospital beds for new admissions) have led to intense ?nancial pressures on private facilities for the elderly. This has caused the closure of many homes, which, in turn, is worsening the level of BED-BLOCKING by elderly patients who do not require hospital-intensity nursing but who lack family support in the community and cannot a?ord private care.... private health care

Privately organized health insurance that is based on estimation of probable population risks, and that provides either total or partial indemnity of medical expenses.... private health insurance

A system whereby reimbursement rates are set for a given period of time prior to the circumstances giving rise to actual reimbursement claims.... prospective payment system

Health services re-orientation is characterized by a more explicit concern for the achievement of population health outcomes in the ways in which the health system is organized and funded.... re-orienting health services

This consists of highly specialised cells scattered throughout the body, but found mainly in the SPLEEN, BONE MARROW, LIVER, and LYMPH nodes or glands. Their main function is the ingestion of red blood cells and the conversion of HAEMOGLOBIN to BILIRUBIN. They are also able to ingest bacteria and foreign colloidal particles.... reticulo-endothelial system

A statutory organisation that is part of the NHS. It comprises ten laboratory groups and two centres in the UK, with central coordination from PHLS headquarters. The service provides diagnostic-testing facilities for cases of suspected infectious disease. The remit of the PHLS (which was set up during World War II and then absorbed into the NHS) is now based on legislation approved in 1977 and 1979. Its overall purpose was to protect the population from infection by maintaining a national capability of high quality for the detection, diagnosis, surveillance, protection and control of infections and communicable diseases. It provided microbiology services to hospitals, family doctors and local authorities as well as providing national reference facilities. In 2001 it was incorporated into the newly established NATIONAL INFECTION CONTROL AND HEALTH PROTECTION AGENCY.... public health laboratoryservice (phls)

Professional sta? working in health care are registered with and regulated by several statutory bodies: doctors by the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC); dentists by the GENERAL DENTAL COUNCIL; nurses and midwives by the Council for Nursing and Midwifery, formerly the UK Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting (see NURSING); PHARMACISTS by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society; and the professions supplementary to medicine (chiropody, dietetics, medical laboratory sciences, occupational therapy, orthoptics, physiotherapy and radiography) by the Council for Professions Supplementary to Medicine. In 2002, the Council for the Regulation of Health Care Professions was set up as a statutory body that will promote cooperation between and give advice to existing regulatory bodies, provide a quality-control mechanism, and play a part in promoting the interests of patients. The new Council is accountable to a Select Committee of Parliament and is a non-ministerial government department similar in status to the FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY. It has the right to scrutinise the decisions of its constituent bodies and can apply for judicial review if it feels that a judgement by a disciplinary committee has been too lenient.... regulation of health professions

Rooibos tea is a largely consumed beverage, due to its medicinal properties dealing with weak bone structure, insomnia or even stomach ailments. Rooibos Tea description Rooibos is a plant belonging to the legume family which grows in South Africa. This plant is used to prepare Rooibos tea (also known as bush tea or redbush tea). The beverage is known for centuries in Southern Africa and nowadays, it is consumed in many countries. Fermentation by analogy (the process through which the leaves are oxidized) renders its reddish-brown color and enhances its flavor. Rooibos Tea brewing To prepare Rooibos tea:

• use spring water or filtered water
• brew Rooibos tea leaves in heartily boiling water: one heaping teaspoon of tea leaves per eight ounces (one cup) of water
• steep it five to ten minutes
• keep the water hot the entire time the leaves are steeping

Milk, sugar or honey can be added to the resulting beverage. Rooibos Tea benefits Rooibos tea has been successfully used to:

• treat irritability,headaches, disturbed sleeping patterns, insomnia, nervous tension, mild depression or hypertension
• relieve stomach cramps
• relieve colic in infants
• relieve stomach and indigestive problems like nausea, vomiting, heartburn, stomach ulcers and constipation
• supplement the daily amounts of calcium, manganese and especially fluoride for the development of strong teeth and bones
• relieve itching and certain skin irritations like eczema, nappy rash and acne (when directly applied to the affected area)

Rooibos Tea side effects Rooibos tea is not recommended to pregnant and nursing women. Also, it is recommended to ask your doctor before consuming this type of tea. Rooibos tea is a healthy beverage used to treat a large array of diseases such as skin-related issues, indigestion, disturbed sleeping patterns, but not only.... rooibos tea health benefits

Any of a variety of organizational arrangements to link rural health care providers in a common purpose.... rural health network

Health status is usually obtained from survey data by asking the respondent if his/her health is excellent, very good, good, fair or poor (or similar questions).... self-rated health status / perceived health status

The place or social context in which people engage in daily activities in which environmental, organizational and personal factors interact to affect health and well-being.... settings for health

Major government schemes to ensure adequate health services to substantial sectors of the community through direct provision of services.... state medicine (health care systems)

An environment that reduces risks to people’s health and promotes healthy living.... supportive environment for health

A review of studies in which evidence has been systematically searched for, studied, assessed and summarized according to predetermined criteria.... systematic review

A school of thought evolving from earlier systems analysis theory and propounding that virtually all outcomes are the result of systems rather than individuals. In practice, the systems approach is characterized by attempts to improve the quality and/or efficiency of a process through improvements to the system.... systems approach

Skullcap tea gets its name from the perennial herb shaped like a human skull, native to North America. Skullcap tea has been used for centuries as a natural and effective sedative and nerve tonic which relieves fear, anxiety and promotes relaxation. Skullcap Tea Brewing Skullcap teabrewing should be made with water that is not too hot, because otherwise it will spoil the tea and its benefits will not be fully enjoyed. The infusion will last three to five minutes. Skullcap tea has a pleasant taste which will make you perceive it less like a medicinal sleeping aid. Skullcap Tea Health Benefits Skullcap tea has a wide range ofbeneficial effects on the human body. It has been used as a sedative for centuries and nowadays been proven effective as a cure for insomnia, anxiety and headaches. Skullcap tea has a calming effect which soothes stress, muscle spasms, menstrual cramps and other problems that require the use of a remedy with sedative properties. Skullcap tea consumption may also be useful as a complimentary treatment method for more serious illnesses such as bladder and liver cancer, asthma, arthritis, gout or allergies. Research suggests that the tea could be beneficial for the prevention of heart diseases and strokes as well. Skullcap Tea Side Effects Excessive Skullcap tea intake may lead to unpleasantside effects such as irregular heartbeat, mental confusion, slow responsiveness to stimuli and even seizures. Skullcap tea should not be consumed with other with other medications that have the same relaxing effects because it may enhance their sedation properties and it is not recommended for pregnant or nursing women. Patients suffering from spleen, liver or stomach problems and diabetics should avoid Skullcap tea. It is advisable to consult a doctor prior to adding skullcap tea to your dietary plan. Sleep is essential for the well-being of our body. Drinking Skullcap tea nightly before bed when you feel the need of easing your mind or calming your nerves will work miracles. You will turn off your brain and enjoy a good night’s sleep!... skullcap tea health benefits

Solomon’s Seal Tea is a very good remedy when it comes to heart problems and not only. Solomon’s Seal plant is a medicinal herb well known for its healing properties that can easily be recognized by its long green leaves and pale yellow flowers. You are probably more familiar to its cultivated cousin, Lily of the Valley. Solomon’s Seal plant has a large variety of types and it can be found in North America, Northern Europe and Siberia and it can be grown by division or by seeds. Solomon’s Seal was named after King Solomon the Hebrew, who was granted a lot of wisdom from God. According to herbal lore, Solomon put his royal seal on this plant’s leaves after recognizing its great benefits. Solomon’s Seal Tea Properties Solomon’s Seal tea is best known for its therapeutic use. You can make a tonic out of it, a hot tea or a tincture. All you need to do is find the use that bits you best and go for it! But make sure you do not eat or even touch the fruits, the leaves or the stems: they are poisonous ! The main substances of Solomon’s Seal tea are vitamins, saponins (similar to diosgenin), flavonoids. A solution made of roost or rhizomes is used in alternative medicine as an astringent, demulcent, and tonic. The dried roots are a great laxative and restorative, and is does wonders when it comes to inflammations of the stomach, indigestion, profuse menstruation, piles, general debility, bowels and chronic dysentery. You can also apply Solomon’s Seal roots on open cuts or eczema. Solomon’s Seal Tea Benefits Solomon’s Seal tea is useful for a lot of things and it has proven its medical and culinary utility in time. Ladies will find this plant very interesting and nevertheless important: a decoction made of Solomon’s Seal can be used as an excellent face rinse (think of it as a natural makeup remover or an organic face treatment). Solomon’s Seal tea is also a good remedy when it comes to kidney problems, heart conditions and nevertheless sexual problems. A solution of Solomon’s Seal can be used in case of internal bleeding, indigestion and other stomach and digestive system complaints. Let’s not forget that oil infused with Solomon’s Seal tea should always be kept in the medical cabinet: is great for broken bones or strains, torn ligaments and joint problems. How to make Solomon’s Seal Tea Infusion Solomon’s Seal tea can only be made from this herb’s rhizomes. What you need to do is take the roots and boil them for 15-20 minutes (depending on how dry they are). If they are freshly harvested, 10 minutes should do the trick. Put the solution in a bottle and drink it whenever you feel like it, but not more that 2 cups per day. Drinking too much Solomon’s Seal tea can cause diarrhea and other stomach problems. Solomon’s Seal Tea Side Effects Solomon’s Seal tea has few side effects. However, a high dosage may cause aching finger joints or heart burn. If any of that happened to you, see a doctor as soon as possible! Solomon’s Seal Tea- Contraindications Do not take Solomon’s Seal tea if you are suffering from diarrhea or other digestive track conditions, such as ulcer. It may cause serious damage to you and your body. Before starting any type of diet or treatment that involves Solomon’s Seal tea, see a doctor first. The benefits of Solomon’s Seal tea are many. Next time you’re looking for a natural treatment, add Solomon’s Seal Tea to your shopping list and just give it a try!... solomon`s seal tea health benefits

An error that is not the result of an individual’s actions, but the predictable outcome of a series of actions and factors that comprise a diagnostic or treatment process.... systems error

See “futile medical treatment”; “advanced directive”.... withholding / withdrawing medical treatment

See ETHICS.... world medical association

Quarterly publication of the National Herbalists Association of Australia. Australian medicinal plants, Government reports, case studies, books, plant abstracts. For subscription details and complimentary copy of the Journal contact: NHAA, PO Box 65, Kingsgrove NSW 2208, Australia. Tel: +61(02) 502 2938. Annual subscription (Aus) $40 (overseas applicants include $15 for air mail, otherwise sent by sea mail). ... australian journal of medical herbalism

Speedwell Tea is and it has been for centuries used mainly for its soothing effects. Speedwell is a perennial herb that grows mostly in Europe. The French people used it in the 19th century as a very good replacement for ordinary tea, because of its bitter and astringent flavor. Nowadays, Speedwell Tea is used to calm any skin irritation, throat ache or cough. Speedwell Tea Properties Speedwell Tea is a great remedy for almost any health condition that involves inflammation or localized pain. You can use it as a supplementary aid or as a main treatment as well. There are many types of Speedwell Tea solutions, such as infusions, tonics or tinctures. Also, pressing the smashed plant on a open cut will calm your pain and bring relief if you are suffering from irritated skin. You can benefit from this plant’s wonders at home, preparing the tea by yourself or buy it from the tea shop. However, if you are thinking about making it at home, pay attention to our advice on How to prepare Speedwell Tea. Speedwell Tea Benefits Speedwell Tea has been used for many years as a panacea for almost any health problems. Its main use was in treating gall stones and colds. In our times, alternative medicine found new and excited benefits of Speedwell Tea in treating light-headedness, damaged hearing, sinusitis and ear infections. Also, if you are suffering from nephritic problems, skin ailments, hemorrhages or have a small opened wound, Speedwell Tea may come in hand. The leaves and roots of speedwell are astringent, gently diuretic, stomachic, slightly expectorant and stimulant. Lately, herbalists around the world announced the benefits that Speedwell Tea offers when treating ulcers or blockages of the respiratory system. How to make Speedwell Tea Infusion When making Speedwell Tea infusion, you need to pay attention to a couple of things. First of all, you need to decide if you are using Speedwell powder, freshly picked Speedwell plants or dry roots. Put the ingredients in a pot of boiled water and wait for the benefits of Speedwell Tea to be released. If you are using powder, wait only 10 minutes. For dry roots or fresh plants, 15 to 20 minutes, depending on the amount of water used. For better results and a more concentrated solution, wait another 15 minutes. You can drink it or use it on your affected area. Also, you can use the powder directly on an open cut or wound. Speedwell Tea Side Effects Speedwell Tea has almost no side effects at all. Just make sure you don’t drink more than 3 cups a day or you’ll get diarrhea and also experience vomiting sensations. Other than that, go for it! Speedwell Tea Contraindications Don’t take Speedwell Tea if you are already suffering from diarrhea or have vomiting episodes. Also, if you have a dry throat, this tea may not be the best idea for you. However, if you experience any of the symptoms mentioned before and are still thinking about taking Speedwell Tea, talk to a specialist before boiling the water. Judging by this tea’s popularity and the great reviews that people around the world gave, it’s fair to say that Speedwell tea should have its own place in your list of herbal remedies. If you have on open cut and are tired of your medicine cabinet, add Speedwell Tea to your shopping cart next time you’re shopping for natural treatments!... speedwell tea organic health benefits

White tea is a fruity low-caffeine beverage with a delicate aroma and a sweet or bittersweet taste. Despite its name, it has a pale yellow colour. White tea originated in the Fujian province of China sometime in the 18th century. Green tea and black tea are made from the leaves of the tea plant, whereas white tea is prepared from its white fuzzy buds. White tea is minimally processed, withered in natural sunlight and only slightly oxidized. White Tea Brewing White tea brewing is a quite easy procedure. When preparing white tea, preferably use water heated at a below boiling temperature of approximately 80 degrees Celsius and steep it for three to five minutes. White tea should be enjoyed plain because milk might neutralize its beneficial properties. White Tea Health Benefits White tea consumption offers your body numerous health benefits by boosting the immune system and strengthening its power to fight against viruses and bacteria. The beverage is also effective in the prevention of dental plaque, one of the main causes of tooth decay, and it may also have a beneficial effect for people afflicted with osteoporosis or arthritis. Research shows that some white tea compounds protect against cancer, reduce the cholesterol level and improve artery function, thus lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease. The antioxidants in white tea protect the skin and make it appear healthy and radiant. Regular consumption of white tea may also prevent obesity and aid in the weight-loss process. White tea increases metabolism, encouraging the burning of fat. White Tea Side Effects Although white tea has low caffeine content, some people may still experience unpleasant side effects which include anxiety, sleeping difficulties, nausea, faster heart rate, tremors or gastrointestinal problems. Enjoy the pleasant aroma ofwhite tea and its health benefits at any time of the day. You have a wide range of white teas you can choose from and you can drink as many as four cups a day. White tea is definitely one of nature’s great gifts!... white tea - health benefits, information

Feed into an electric juicer leaves of any one kind of leaf (Mint, Alfalfa, etc). For Green Multicup juice any number of different leaves: Alfalfa, Chard, Dandelion, Carrots, Parsley, Beet Greens, Filaree, Spinach, Celery, Mint, Kale. Discard stems.

Green drinks are important sources of chlorophyll, vitamins and minerals and are regarded as preventive medicine. ... green health cup

A good health means that all your system works properly and that there’s nothing that could give you a hard time. Generally, people think that if nothing hurts, they have a very strong health, when the truth is that they can’t really tell what’s going on with their body. In order to make sure everything is fine, you have to see a specialist. However, if your health is in danger, there are some teas that could work miracles for you and your body. Just give them a try! How Tea for Good Health Works A Tea for Good Health’s main purpose is to ameliorate your affections and induce a state of calmness and well-being. However, these teas are very useful if you have a very deficient immune system or you’re very sensitive to a series of external factors which may cause you colds, flu or asthenia. If that is the case, a Tea for Good Health will make your body produce the necessary amount of enzymes and nutrients in order to restore your natural health. Aside from Green Tea and Yerba Mate Tea, few teas can be taken for any problem. Not many teas have the same number of active ingredients capable to sustain life, like these two teas have. Efficient Tea for Good Health When choosing a Tea for Good Health, you need to keep in mind the fact that you’re looking for a decoction that’s both efficient and safe. If you don’t know which teas are good to strengthen your immune system, here’s a list to choose from: - Ginger Tea – the well known Chinese tea has a lot of benefits in store for you. Some say that it also cures a lot of affections, such as stress, anxiety and sore throat. Ginger Tea has a pleasant taste; just make sure you use the right amount of herbs when preparing a decoction in order to avoid irritations of the stomach, diarrhea and intolerance to acid foods and drinks. - Peppermint Tea – it’s good for a series of conditions, starting with digestive tract diseases and ending with respiratory system affections. It has a pleasant taste and it’s also one hundred percent safe. You can also use it if you’re suffering from diarrhea, bloating, vomiting and nausea. - Chamomile Tea – the world’s greatest panacea can be used to treat and bring relief to almost any medical problem, from sore throats to diabetes and menstrual or menopausal pains. You may also give it a try in case you’re suffering from stress, anxiety, migraines or headaches. A Chamomile Tea compress will turn this great Tea for Good Health into a reliable disinfector. - Rooibos Tea – rich in vitamin C, this tea can be taken to treat any auto-immune deficiency, such as colds, flu, soreness, pleurisy or pulmonary edema. Just make sure you don’t take more than 2 cups per day in order to avoid other health complications. Tea for Good Health Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, high dosages may lead to a number of problems such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, upset stomach or even hallucinations. If you’ve been taking one of these teas for a while and you’re experiencing some unusual reactions from your body, talk to a specialist as soon as possible. Talk to an herbalist or ask your doctor before starting any kind of herbal treatment and be well informed of the risks. If you have your doctor’s ok on the matter and there’s nothing that could interfere with your herbal treatment, choose a Tea for Good Health that seems right for you and enjoy its wonderful benefits!... tea for good health

A General Medical Council style organisation with a single Register, common ethics and disciplinary procedures for its members. To promote high standards of education, qualification and treatment; to preserve the patient’s freedom of choice.

Founder groups: The National Institute of Medical Herbalists, College of Osteopaths, British Naturopathic and Osteopathic Association, The British Chiropractic Association, The Society of Homoeopaths, The British Acupuncture Association, The Traditional Acupuncture Society and the Register of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Objects: to provide vital unified representation to contest adverse legislation; to promote the interests of those seeking alternative treatments; to maintain standards of competent primary health care; to protect the practice of alternative medicine if Common Law is encroached upon. The Council prefers to work in harmony with the orthodox profession in which sense it is complementary. Council’s first chairman: Simon Mills, FNIMH. Address: 10 Belgrave Square, London SW1X BPH. ... council for complementary and alternative medicine

Professional body to ensure status of those whose career is in the health food industry. Encourages training, research and education in health food retailing, health and nutrition, and furthers these objects with meetings and seminars. Holders of the NAHS Diploma of Health Food Retailing may apply for membership. On acceptance they are awarded a certificate with authority to use the designatory letters M Inst HFR.

Address: Byron House, College Street, Nottingham NG1 5AQ. ... institute of health food retailing

Legal guidance sought by the sufferer when making claims against a doctor or health authority is available from: Action for Victims of Medical Accidents (AVMA), Bank Chambers, 1 London Road, Forest Hill, London SE23 3TP. ... medical accidents

The collection of glands around the body that produce hormones.

These glands include the thyroid gland, pancreas, testes, ovaries, and adrenal glands.

Their hormones are responsible for numerous bodily processes, including growth, metabolism, sexual development and function, and response to stress.

Any increase or decrease in the production of a specific hormone interferes with the process it controls.

To prevent under- or overproduction, hormone secretion from many endocrine glands is regulated by the pituitary gland, which is in turn influenced by the hypothalamus in the brain according to a feedback mechanism.... endocrine system

A term applied to any food products thought to promote health.... health food

Envir-injury); hazards associated with domestic and social life; tobacco-smoking and alcohol; and global environmental hazards (see pollution; radiation hazards; sunlight, adverse effects of).... health hazards

Heart conditions may be triggered by many causes, from stomach pains to vascular strokes and depression. However, some people have a congenital predisposition for cardiac problems and all they can do is treat this affection as it is. Having a heart problem could mean that your heart is not pumping enough blood (or too much), that you have an abnormal growth which weakens your circulatory system or that you suffer from arrhythmia (a disease in which your blood flow is never constant, but fluctuates depending on the situation). How a Tea for Heart Health Works A Tea for Heart Health’s main goal is to prevent diseases from developing and treating the already installed ones. If that is the case, you may want to look after teas and tinctures which contain a high level of antioxidants, natural enzymes, volatile oils and minerals (sodium, iron, magnesium and manganese) and are low on acids (in high concentrations, they may cause heartburn). Efficient Tea for Heart Health In order to work properly, a Tea for Heart Health needs to be both efficient and one hundred percent safe. Remember that you must schedule an appointment with your doctor before self medicating! This way, you’ll eliminate the risk of triggering other health problems and you’ll know for sure what’s wrong with your body. If you don’t know which teas could have a positive effect on you, here’s a list for guidance: - Green Tea – according to specialists, this Tea for Heart Health contains all the ingredients necessary to sustain life, so it’s useful for a wide range of ailments, from sore throats, headaches and migraines to infertility and erectile dysfunctions. However, you may want to avoid it if you’re experiencing menstrual and menopausal symptoms (due to its acids level, it may cause uterine contractions). - Yerba Mate Tea – named “the new green tea” by the herbalists, this decoction is a great choice for many problems, such as loss of appetite, asthenia or anemia. Although it remains yet unknown to European public, Yerba Mate Tea is very popular in South American regions. However, don’t drink more than 2 cups per day! High dosages may lead to death! - Chamomile Tea – has curative properties which are benefic for a series of health problems, from nausea, diarrhea, upset stomach to infertility and hot flashes. This Tea for Heart Health has a pleasant taste and a lovely smell. Plus, it’s one hundred percent safe, so you can drink as much as you want. If you’re thinking about giving up on coffee, Chamomile Tea can be a great replacer. Tea for Heart Health Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day may lead to a number of problems, such as stomach pain, nausea, headaches and even death. Before starting any kind of herbal treatment, make sure you’re well informed of the risks that may occur. Don’t take a Tea for Heart Health if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants. The same advice if you’re preparing for a surgery. If you’ve been taking one of these teas for a while and something doesn’t feel quite right, ask for medical assistance right away! Once you have the green light from your doctor and there’s nothing that could interfere with your treatment, choose a Tea for Heart Health that fits best your condition and enjoy its great benefits!... tea for heart health

Registered as a Friendly Society (1932) under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act. The buying society of the independent health food trader. Owned and managed entirely by retailer members and concerned with food standards. Stringent rules govern membership and conduct of business. Members are the only shareholders, who are required to hold 20 withdrawable shares of £5 each.

Financial advantages to members include earning profit-sharing discounts: suppliers are relieved of the burden of collecting separate accounts and benefit from having their products approved by the retailers own organisation. Its meetings are a focal point for reporting on up-to-date research and protecting the public interest. Address: Queen’s Road, Nottingham NG2 3AS. ... health stores (wholesale) ltd

Your immune system consists of a series of antibodies and other microorganisms whose main purpose is to defend your system against external attacks. When we have a cold or flu, the main thing that keeps us alive is this line of defense that keeps all bacteria, infections and microbes away from us. Unfortunately, our immune system is not strong enough to fight all causes, so we need to enhance its power by taking a treatment. How a Tea for Immune System Works A Tea for Immune System must contain enough active constituents to fight a wide range of diseases. First of all, it must contain minerals, manganese, magnesium, iron, volatile oils, acids, tannins, nutrients and enzymes. These teas can be taken as cures for a short amount of time (1 or 2 weeks) to enhance your body strength, so you mustn’t exaggerate when taking it. Efficient Tea for Immune System A Tea for Immune System must contain a lot of active constituents and it must be very effective. If you don’t know which teas to choose from, here’s a list to guide you on: - Garlic Tea – can be found almost anywhere on the globe and it has a wide range of uses, from cuisine to pharmaceutical purposes. Also a great cure for diarrhea, this Tea for Immune System has a rather unpleasant taste and smell. Feel free to add honey, lemon, ginger or mint in order to make it more adequate. - Green Tea – probably the most important tea in the world, Green Tea contains all the ingredients necessary to promote a healthy life, full of great benefits. However, don’t take it in case you suffer from menstrual and menopausal pains in order to avoid stomach and uterus irritations. - Yerba Mate Tea – the South American tea has a series of health advantages and it’s been named by the scientific society “the new green tea”. Drink it from a traditional bombilla or straight from a normal glass, but make sure you know which the risks are and that you’re taking this treatment under supervision. - Ginseng Tea – this wonderful Chinese Tea is used as a main ingredient in the Asian cuisine, but also as a great adjuvant in cases of nausea, vomiting and auto-immune deficiencies. However, make sure that you’re using the right amount of herbs when preparing this decoction in order to avoid developing a acid foods and drinks intolerance! Tea for Immune System Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, drinking more tea than it’s recommended may lead to constipation, upset stomach or even death. Talk to your doctor before starting any kind of herbal treatment and find out which are the risks. Don’t take a treatment based on a Tea for Immune System if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on anti coagulants, blood thinners or preparing for a surgery. Also, children must be kept away from these teas since there’s no study to prove how safe it is for them. When in doubt, always ask your doctor. If he says there’s nothing that could interfere with your treatment, choose a tea that fits you best and enjoy its health benefits!... tea for immune system

Founded 1931. Objects:

(a) To promote and protect the interests of Health Foods Stores among members.

(b) To set standards in retailing of health foods and herbs.

(c) To encourage production, marketing and sales of products derived from purely natural and vegetable sources.

((d) To provide qualifications by certificate and diploma courses for those engaged in the industry.

The Association provides advice on aspects of health food and herb retailing and is able to help its members with professional advice and merchandising. NAHS Diploma of Health Food Retailing qualifies for membership of the Institute of Health Food Retailing. Address: Bastow House, Queens Road, Nottingham NG2 3AS. ... national association of health stores (nahs)

Est. 1864. The oldest and only body of professional medical herbalists, now known as phytotherapists, in Europe. Membership by examination after completion of course of training. A stipulated period of clinical practice must be completed before the final examination is taken.

Members are directly involved with patient-care, carrying full responsibility for their recommendations, prescribing medication suitable to the individual biological requirements of each patient. Their role includes patient-counselling, health education and research.

Official recognition of the Institute, indicating its growing importance in the field of medicine came with the historic Grant of Arms by Her Majesty’s College of Heralds. Members regard this as evidence that the Royal Charter of King Henry VIII still stands and that there is no monopoly in healing the sick. See: HENRY VIII, HERBALISTS’ CHARTER.

The Institute played a major role in winning vital concessions for the survival of the herbalist in the passage through Parliament of the Medicine’s Bill. See: MEDICINE’S ACT, 1968.

In connection with the NIMH degree courses in herbal medicine are available at a London University, and Exeter University.

The Institute provides professional indemnity cover for its members, and is engaged in a series of clinical trials to evaluate traditional remedies.

All members are required to adhere to a strict professional Code of Ethics and are entitled to carry after their names the letters of qualification: MNIMH or FNIMH.

Members have a key role in preventative medicine and health promotion in their contribution to improvement of the nation’s health.

Address: 56 Longbrook Street, Exeter EX4 6AH, from which a list of members is obtainable. ... national institute of medical herbalists

The collection and analysis of numerical data relating to medicine.

Information on the incidence and prevalence of various conditions is an important aspect of medical statistics.... statistics, medical

See lupus erythematosus.... systemic lupus erythematosus

See urinary tract.... urinary system

The nervous system is responsible for almost any reaction that comes from your body. From eyes to muscles and even hair, your body is a very complex electric system directed by your brain. Most of the problems that a person has in a lifetime are related to a nervous system failure. In order to treat this kind of problems or prevent them from happening, you may want to try a tea instead of all those traditional pills. How a Tea for Nervous System Works A Tea for Nervous System is indeed helpful if it contains an important amount of nutrients, enzymes, tannins, volatile oils and minerals (sodium, iron, magnesium and manganese). You may want to avoid a tea that has an elevated acids level since it may cause you even more damages. A Tea for Nervous System will make your body send all the active constituents to the affected areas and heal the damaged tissue. Efficient Tea for Nervous System In order to work properly, a Tea for Nervous System must show results in a short time period and be one hundred percent safe (you don’t want any more complications than you already have). However, before starting any kind of herbal treatment, remember to take the indicated dose and never surpass it in order to avoid other health problems. If you don’t know which teas could be helpful for you, here’s a list for guidance: - Oolong Tea – contains half the amount of caffeine that other teas have so it’s best for your health to give it a try every once in a while. This Tea for Nervous System will also strengthen your entire organism and rejuvenate the aspect of your skin. However, don’t drink more than 2 cups per day. - Green Tea – as the scientists have proved, this decoction contains all the ingredients necessary to sustain life, so it’s good for a number of other health complaints, such as infertility, headaches, nausea, loss of appetite, anemia and asthenia. Just make sure you avoid it at all costs in case you’re experiencing some menstrual or menopausal symptoms (it may cause uterine contractions and internal bleedings). - Black Tea – some say that it does more damages than good for your nervous system and some others think that this tea is worth a try. Having an elevated level of caffeine, this tea is highly addictive. In right amount, it can treat infertility, erectile dysfunctions, sore throats and colds. However, ask an herbalist before starting a treatment based on this Tea for Nervous System in order to find out which are the risks. Tea for Nervous System Side Effects When taken according to specifications, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day may lead to other health complaints, such as nausea, diarrhea, uterine contractions, internal bleedings and headaches. If you’ve tried one of these teas and something doesn’t feel quite right, talk to your doctor as soon as possible! Don’t take a Tea for Nervous System if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants. The same advice if you’re preparing for a surgery (some of the active compounds in these teas may interfere with your anesthetic and cause death). But if you have the green light from your doctor, choose a tea that fits best your requirements and enjoy its wonderful health benefits!... tea for nervous system

The organs and ducts by which bile is formed, concentrated, and carried from the liver to the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). Bile is secreted by the liver cells and collected by a network of bile ducts that carry the bile out of the liver by way of the hepatic duct. A channel called the cystic duct branches off the hepatic duct and leads to the gallbladder where bile is concentrated and stored. Beyond this junction, the hepatic duct becomes the common bile duct and opens into the duodenum at a controlled orifice called the ampulla of Vater. The presence of fat in the duodenum after a meal causes secretion of a hormone, which opens the ampulla of Vater and makes the gallbladder contract, squeezing stored bile into the duodenum.

The main disorders affecting the biliary system are gallstones, congenital biliary atresia and bile duct obstruction.

(See also gallbladder, disorders of.)... biliary system

see blood group.... abo system

a health-care professional with expert knowledge and experience in certain fields but without a medical or nursing qualification. Allied health professionals include speech and language therapists, radiographers, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and dieticians.... allied health professional

(AMA) a professional organization for US physicians. Its purposes include dissemination of scientific information through journals, a weekly newspaper, and a website; representation of the profession to Congress and state legislatures; keeping members informed of pending health and medical legislation; evaluating prescription and non-prescription drugs; and cooperating with other organizations in setting standards for hospitals and medical schools. The AMA maintains a comprehensive directory of licensed physicians in the US.... american medical association

The group of organs responsible for digestion. It consists of the digestive tract (also known as the alimentary tract or canal) and various associated organs. The digestive tract consists of the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestines, and the anus. The intestines are the small intestine (comprising the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) and the large intestine (comprising the caecum, colon, and rectum). The associated organs, such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas, secrete digestive juices that break down food as it goes through the tract.

Food and the products of digestion are moved from the throat to the rectum by peristalsis (waves of muscular contractions of the intestinal wall).

Food is broken down into simpler substances before being absorbed into the bloodstream.Physical breakdown is performed by the teeth, which cut and chew, and the stomach, which churns the food. The chemical breakdown of food is performed by the action of enzymes, acids, and salts.

Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars. Proteins are broken down into polypeptides, peptides, and amino acids. Fats are broken down into glycerol, glycerides, and fatty acids.

In the mouth, saliva lubricates food and contains enzymes that begin to break down carbohydrates. The tongue moulds food into balls (called boli) for easy swallowing. The food then passes into the pharynx. From here, it is pushed into the oesophagus and squeezed down into the stomach, where it is mixed with hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Produced by the stomach lining, these substances help break down proteins. When the food has been converted to a semi-liquid consistency, it passes into the duodenum where bile salts and acids (produced by the liver) help to break down fats. Digestive juices released by the pancreas into the duodenum contain enzymes that further break down food. Breakdown ends in the small intestine, carried out by enzymes produced by glands in the intestinal lining. Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. The residue enters the large intestine, where water is absorbed. Undigested matter is expelled via the rectum and anus as faeces.... digestive system

The muscles of the body that are attached to the skeleton. These muscles are responsible for voluntary movement, and also support and stabilize the skeleton. In most cases, a muscle attaches to a bone (usually by means of a tendon) and crosses over a joint to attach to another bone. Muscles can produce movement by contracting and shortening to pull on the bone to which they are attached. They can only pull, not push, and are therefore arranged so that the pull of one muscle or group of muscles is opposed to another, enabling a movement to be reversed. Although most actions of the skeletal muscles are under conscious control, reflex movements of certain muscles occur in response to stimuli.

There are more than 600 muscles in the body, classified according to the type of movement they produce.

An extensor opens out a joint, a flexor closes it; an adductor draws a part of the body inwards, an abductor moves it outwards; a levator raises it, a depressor lowers it; and constrictor or sphincter muscles surround and close orifices.... muscular system

The female organs involved in ovulation, sexual intercourse, nourishing a fertilized ovum until it has developed into a full-grown fetus, and childbirth. With the exception of the vulva, which protects the opening of the vagina, these organs lie within the pelvic cavity.

Ova (eggs) are released at monthly intervals from the 2 ovaries, which also secrete oestrogen hormone; and progesterone hormones that control the reproductive cycle. The ova travel through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. Fertilization takes place if a sperm released into the vagina during sexual intercourse travels through the cervix and uterus to penetrate an ovum while it is in the fallopian tube.... reproductive system, female

The male organs involved in the production of sperm and in sexual intercourse. Sperm and male sex hormones (androgen hormones) are produced in the testes, which are suspended in the scrotum. From each testis, sperm pass into an epididymis, where they mature and are stored. Shortly before ejaculation, sperm are propelled into a duct called the vas deferens, which carries the sperm to the seminal vesicles behind the bladder. These 2 sacs produce seminal fluid, which is added to the sperm to produce semen.

Semen travels along 2 ducts to the urethra.

The ducts pass through the prostate gland, which produces secretions that are added to the semen.

At orgasm, semen is ejaculated from the urethra through the erect penis, which is placed in the woman’s vagina during sexual intercourse.... reproductive system, male

acute physiological and chronic health evaluation: a tool used to assess the severity of illness in a critically ill patient and to estimate mortality. The assessment uses information from 12 physiological measurements, including temperature, blood pressure, arterial pH, and certain blood results.... apache scoring system

(BMA) a professional body for doctors and also an independent trade union dedicated to protecting individual members and the collective interests of doctors. It has a complex structure that allows representation both by geographical area of work and through various committees, including the General Practice Committee (GPC), Central Consultants and Specialists Committee, Junior Doctors Committee, and the Medical Students Committee.... british medical association

(CMO) the most senior medical adviser to the UK government, who is responsible for providing expert advice on health issues (including health-related emergencies). The CMO is responsible to the Secretary of State for Health and acts as leader of profession for Directors of Public Health. There are separate CMOs appointed to advise the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.... chief medical officer

see community health.... clinical medical officer

(CMHT) a multidisciplinary team consisting of psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses, psychologists, social workers, and occupational therapists who treat patients with severe mental illness in the community.... community mental health team

Tests may be performed to investigate the cause of symptoms and establish a diagnosis, to monitor the course of a disease, or to assess response to treatment. A medical testing programme carried out on apparently healthy people to find disease at an early stage is known as screening.

The accuracy of a test is based on its sensitivity (ability to correctly identify diseased subjects), specificity (ability to correctly identify healthy subjects), and predictive value.

The predictive value is determined by a mathematical formula that involves the number of accurate test results and the total number of tests performed.

The best tests have both high specificity and high sensitivity, and therefore high predictive value.... tests, medical

(AHSN, academic health science centre, academic health science system, academic medical partnership) a regional partnership between one or more academic institutions (typically universities) and one or more health-care providers (in England, typically foundation trusts) with a twin focus on promoting economic growth in the region covered and improving the health of the population. Many AHSNs also include third-sector and industry partners and most have a role in providing education and training. The fifteen AHSNs across England were established by NHS England in 2013 and represent a national expansion of the earlier Academic Health Science Partnerships (AHSPs), which were first set up in London in 2007.... academic health science network

(in Britain) a special clinic for the routine care of infants and preschool children, formerly known as a child welfare centre. Sometimes these clinics are staffed by doctors, *health visitors, and clinic nurses; the children attending them are drawn from the neighbourhood around the clinic. Alternatively, general practitioners may run their own child health clinic on a regular basis, with health visitors and other staff in attendance; it is unusual for children not registered with the practice to attend such clinics. The service provides screening tests for such conditions as *congenital dislocation of the hip, suppressed squint (see cover test), and impaired speech and/or hearing. The *Guthrie test may also be performed if this has not been done before the baby leaves hospital. The staff of child health clinics also educate mothers (especially those having their first child) in feeding techniques and hygiene and see that children receive the recommended immunizations against infectious diseases. They also ensure that the families of children with disabilities receive maximum support from health and social services and that such children achieve their maximum potential in the preschool period. See also community paediatrician.... child health clinic

a process that enables patients to voice concerns about the standard of care they receive. In the UK, any complaints should be raised as soon as possible, in the first instance locally with the NHS provider involved. Various statutory and voluntary advice and advocacy services are available to assist in this. If a patient is not satisfied with the outcome of local resolution, the matter can be referred to the *Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman. Legal action cannot usually proceed at the same time and only a small proportion of complaints proceed to law. Disciplinary procedures are separate from the complaints procedure although complaints may prompt or inform disciplinary action.... complaints system

(CHP) a consultant within *Public Health England who is responsible for the surveillance, prevention, and control of communicable disease and noncommunicable environmental exposures. While no longer the preferred term, the older form Consultant in Communicable Disease Control (CCDC) is still sometimes used. See also public health consultant.... consultant in health protection

(HHS) the major US government agency providing health care. The department was created in 1953 and assumed its current name in 1980. HHS administers more than 300 health and health-related programmes and services, including *Medicare and *Medicaid. Other activities include research, immunization services, and providing financial assistance for low-income families. Almost a quarter of federal spending occurs through HHS.... department of health and human services

(DPH) a senior public health consultant or specialist in a local authority. Responsibilities include advising on the health needs of the local population. See also public health consultant; public health specialist.... director of public health

(EWS) a system to detect deteriorating patients on the ward. Certain physical parameters are accorded scores: the higher the scores for individual patients, the greater the deterioration in their condition. Parameters scored include blood pressure, respiratory rate, pulse rate, blood oxygen saturation, and level of consciousness. Adjustments can be made for increased age.... early warning system

(DHSC) (in Britain) a department of central government that supports the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care in meeting his or her obligations, which include the *National Health Service, the promotion and protection of the health of the nation, and social care, including some oversight of personal social services provided by local authorities. The department is staffed by civil servants, including some health professionals. Following the reforms of the Health and Social Care Act 2012, the Department no longer has direct control of the NHS, which has passed to *NHS England. The name of the department was expanded from ‘Department of Health’ in 2018. Equivalent departments support the ministers responsible for health services in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

DHSC section of the website: provides information on a wide range of public health issues... department of health and social care

(EHO) a person, employed by a local authority, with special training in such aspects of environmental health as housing, pollution, and food safety (formerly known as a Public Health Inspector). EHOs work closely with other professionals within the local authority and with other agencies, including *Public Health England.... environmental health officer

(FPH) a joint faculty of the three Royal Colleges of Physicians of the United Kingdom and the standard setting body for specialists in public health in the UK. It aims to promote public health, develop the public health workforce, and act as an authoritative body offering consultation and advocacy on matters concerning public health. It assesses public health trainees and makes recommendations for inclusion on the GMC specialist register and UK voluntary register for public health professionals.

The FPH website... faculty of public health

a continuous compression bandage consisting of four layers that are applied and left in situ for up to seven days to treat venous leg ulcers, increasing the chance of healing by up to 30%. Thorough assessment of the patient’s status must be undertaken before the application.... four-layer system

(GHQ) a reliable screening tool published in 1978 for identifying minor psychiatric disorders, still frequently used for research in the general population. The 28-question version (GHQ28) is most commonly used, but the GHQ is available in lengths from 12 to 60 questions.... general health questionnaire

(GMC) the regulatory body of the medical profession in the UK, which was established in 1858 by the Medical Act and has statutory powers. It licenses doctors to practise medicine and has the power to revoke licences or place restrictions on practice. The governing body of the GMC, its Council, comprises 12 members, 6 of which are medically qualified and 6 of which are not. Its purpose is to protect, promote, and maintain the health and safety of the public by ensuring proper standards in the practice of medicine and medical education and training. Following various high-profile cases involving malpractice, there has been a shift in the role of the GMC from one of simple registration to that of *revalidation of doctors.

GMC website: includes the Council’s guide to Good Medical Practice... general medical council

one of the cylindrical units of which compact *bone is made. A Haversian canal forms a central tube, around which are alternate layers of bone matrix (lamellae) and lacunae containing bone cells. The lacunae are linked by minute channels (canaliculi).... haversian system

a measure developed by the World Health Organization to capture life expectancy in terms of both morbidity and mortality. The number of years lived with ill-health, weighted according to severity, are subtracted from the overall life expectancy. Previously known as disability-adjusted life expectancy, it is sometimes referred to as healthy life expectancy. See also disability-adjusted life year.... health-adjusted life expectancy

(HSE) (in Britain) a statutory body responsible for health and safety in the workplace (including factories, offices, and farms). See also COSHH.

HSE website: provides guidance on a wide range of health and safety topics... health and safety executive

(HSCIC) formerly, an executive nondepartmental public body set up in April 2013 to collect, analyse, and publish UK national health data and supply IT systems and services to health-care providers nationwide. It was rebranded as *NHS Digital in August 2016.... health and social care information centre

see National Health Service.... health authority

a health authority in Wales (since 2003), Scotland, and Northern Ireland. See National Health Service.... health board

identifying services required to meet population health-care needs and obtaining such services from an appropriate service provider via allocation of resources and contracting arrangements. Commissioners monitor the quality of commissioned services, including adherence to any appropriate national standards. Most NHS commissioning is undertaken by *clinical commissioning groups or *NHS England.... health-care commissioning

(HWB) a statutory local authority committee that aims to improve integration between local health care, social care, and other public service providers. HWBs (of which there are over 130) also have a responsibility to reduce health inequalities and produce a local joint strategic needs assessment to inform commissioning of local services. Each upper-tier local authority is obliged under the Health and Social Care Act 2012 to have an HWB, whose membership must include: an elected local representative; the local *Directors of Public Health, adult social services, and children’s social services; and representatives from the local *Healthwatch, each local *clinical commissioning group, and *NHS England.... health and wellbeing board

(HEE) a *special health authority of the NHS responsible for leading education and training for the whole health-care and public health workforce. It was established following the Health and Social Care Act 2012. See also local education and training boards.

HEE website... health education england

differences in health-related *variables (e.g. life expectancy, all-age all-cause mortality, breast cancer incidence) between population groups (often defined by socio-economic group, sex, age, ethnic group, place of birth, place of residence, and income). Health inequalities between groups arise as a result of differences in constitutional factors (e.g. age, sex, ethnic group), educational attainment, health-related behaviour (e.g. smoking, diet) and access to services. Typically, socio-economic deprivation is associated with poorer health outcomes. Recent government policy has sought to reduce gaps in health outcomes between population groups, particularly those related to socio-economic group and income.... health inequalities

(HMO) in the USA, a type of prepaid group medical practice with a defined and restricted patient population. Each enrolled patient pays a fixed fee regardless of the amount of physician services used. The HMO physicians assume responsibility for the health care of the enrolled members and provide a wide range of inpatient and outpatient services.... health maintenance organization

the branch of *public health medicine that is concerned with protecting the population from communicable diseases, chemicals and poisons, radiation, and other potential threats to health. See Public Health England.... health protection

(HPA) formerly, a nondepartmental public body set up as a special health authority in 2003 to protect the health of the UK population via advice and support to the NHS, local authorities, the Department of Health, emergency services, and others. The HPA was abolished in April 2013; its responsibilities were largely passed to *Public Health England. See Consultant in Health Protection.... health protection agency

a *special health authority of the NHS established following the Health and Social Care Act 2012 to promote and protect the interests of patients in health research and to simplify the regulation of research. The Health Research Authority inherited the functions of the National Research Ethics Service, which closed in 2012.... health research authority

an administrator with special training and skills in management who is concerned with the planning and provision of health services and with managing performance. Some managers enter the profession via the NHS Graduate Management Training Scheme; for others the basic training is in disciplines other than health; however, doctors, nurses, and others may fill such posts, sometimes combining them with professional appointments. See also National Health Service.... health service manager

balancing the health and health-care needs of a community, assessed by such indices as mortality, morbidity, and disability, with the resources available to meet these needs in terms of human resources (including ensuring the numbers in training grades meet future requirements) and technical resources, such as hospitals (capital planning), equipment, and medicines. See also clinical audit.... health service planning

a trained nurse with specialist qualifications in *health promotion and public health. The role of the health visitor takes place within the primary health-care team and focuses on families with children under five years old, but can be extended to other targeted groups in the population (e.g. the elderly) to meet health needs in the wider community. Health visitors seek to educate, in particular by drawing attention to unmet needs in terms of health and social care.... health visitor

see HEMS.... helicopter-based emergency medical services

(House–Brackmann score, House–Brackmann scale, House–Brackmann facial weakness scale) a six-point grading system for patients with *Bell’s palsy or other forms of facial nerve palsy. Grade I is normal function; grade VI is a total palsy. [J. W. House and D. E. Brackmann (21st century), US otorhinolarygologists]... house–brackmann facial nerve grading system

see HLA system.... human leucocyte antigen system

(loop system) a device for helping people with some types of *hearing aid or *cochlear implant to hear more effectively in certain situations. Electrical signals from a television, sound system, or microphone are passed through an amplifier to a wire that is positioned in a loop encompassing the desired listening area. This creates an electromagnetic field that can be picked up by a coil within the hearing aid or cochlear implant. Induction loops are installed in such places as public buildings, lecture theatres, classrooms, and churches. See also assistive listening device.... induction loop system

(injury severity scale, ISS) a system used, particularly in *triage, for grading the severity of an injury. See also abbreviated injury scale.... injury scoring system

see IUS.... intrauterine system

(LMC) a group of representatives of the general practitioners working in a defined geographical area. There are separate LMCs for each area, and the members speak on behalf of the local practitioners by whom they are elected. Similar arrangements and responsibilities apply for dentists, pharmacists, and optometrists practising in the NHS outside hospitals.... local medical committee

see induction loop system.... loop system

adj. 1. of or relating to medicine, the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease. 2. of or relating to conditions that require the attention of a physician rather than a surgeon. For example, a medical ward of a hospital accommodates patients with such conditions.... medical

1. a health service worker who is not a registered medical practitioner (often in the armed forces) working in association with a doctor to undertake minor treatments and preliminary assessments. In poorer countries, particularly in rural areas where qualified resources are short (e.g. China), agricultural workers receive limited training in health care and continue in a dual role as barefoot doctors; elsewhere, limited training concentrates more on environmental issues: the workers so trained are known as sanitarians. 2. in the USA, a person – licensed or unlicensed, certified or uncertified – who provides administrative and/or clinical assistance in a physician’s office or other health-care facility. Administrative duties typically include filling out insurance forms, billing, and bookkeeping, while clinical duties may include taking medical histories, preparing patients to be examined, and preparing blood and urine specimens.... medical assistant

a certificate stating a doctor’s diagnosis of a patient’s medical condition, disability, or fitness to work (see statement of fitness for work). It is known informally as a ‘fit note’ (formerly a ‘sick note’). See Appendix 8.... medical certificate

see local medical committee.... medical committee

(MET) a team, usually consisting of a group of physicians, anaesthetists, and senior nurses, that can be summoned urgently to attend to patients with deteriorating medical conditions. The aim is to prevent further deterioration and to decide if enhanced levels of care are appropriate (e.g. on the high-dependency or intensive care units). The team will also assume the role of the *cardiac-arrest team.... medical emergency team

the study or practice of the legal aspects of medicine. See forensic medicine.... medical jurisprudence

travelling internationally to undergo surgery or otherwise be treated for an illness or condition. This may be done to save money, to avoid having to wait for treatment, or to receive a treatment not available in the home country.... medical tourism

a regulating body in England and Wales, governed by the Mental Health Act 2007, that was responsible for regularly visiting psychiatric hospitals, reviewing psychiatric care, giving second opinions on the need for certain psychiatric treatments, and acting as a forum for the discussion of psychiatric issues. It was subsumed under the *Care Quality Commission in April 2009.... mental health act commission

(MSA) a condition that results from degeneration of cells in the *basal ganglia (resulting in *parkinsonism), the *cerebellum (resulting in *ataxia), the *pyramidal system, and the *autonomic nervous system (resulting in symptoms of autonomic failure, such as postural hypotension).... multiple system atrophy

see NICE.... national institute for health and care excellence

(NIHR) a national organization, funded through the *Department of Health and Social Care, that coordinates, supports, and funds research within the NHS.

NIHR website... national institute for health research

the system of dual control of certain activities of the body by means of both nerves and circulating hormones. The functioning of the autonomic nervous system is particularly closely linked to that of the pituitary and adrenal glands. The system can give rise to neuroendocrine tumours (NETs), which have special structural features and often produce active hormones. See also neurohormone; neurosecretion.... neuroendocrine system

the standards of conduct required of medical professionals and also the academic study of ethical issues arising from the practice of medicine. From the *Hippocratic oath onwards, standards are designed to reassure that professionals subscribing to them will act in the *best interests of, and will avoid harming, their patients. Today they lay greater emphasis on patient *autonomy, while the contemporary study of medical ethics is concerned with a great variety of complex societal and social issues related to medical practice and research. Medical ethics is now taught in all medical schools in the UK as an essential part of a professional training, and the wider field of *bioethics is becoming a recognized academic specialty. See also clinical ethics; feminist ethics; public health ethics; publication ethics; virtue ethics.

Guidance on good medical practice from the website of the General Medical Council... medical ethics

(MHRT) a tribunal, established under the Mental Health Act 1959 and now operating under the Mental Health Act 2007, to which applications may be made for the discharge from hospital of a person compulsorily detained there under provisions of the Act (see compulsory admission). When a patient is subject to a restriction order an application may only be made after his or her first six months of detention. The powers of the tribunal, which comprises both legally and medically qualified members, include reclassifying unrestricted patients, recommending leave of absence for a patient, delaying discharge, and transferring patients to other hospitals. Detained patients may also apply to have a managers hearing to review their detention. The powers of the managers hearing are slightly different from those of the MHRT, but both are defined in the Mental Health Act 2007 and both can discharge a patient from a section of the Mental Health Act.... mental health review tribunal

(NHS) (in Britain) a comprehensive service offering therapeutic and preventive medical and surgical care, including the prescription and dispensing of medicines, spectacles, and medical and dental appliances. Exchequer funds pay for the services of doctors, nurses, and other professionals, as well as residential costs in NHS hospitals, and meet a substantial part of the cost of the medicines and appliances. Legislation enacted in 1946 was implemented in 1948 and the services were subjected to substantial reorganization in 1974 and again in 1982, 1991, 1999, and in 2013 as a result of the Health and Social Care Act 2012. In England overall responsibility is vested in the Secretary of State for Health. Responsibility for commissioning most services is held by *clinical commissioning groups, consisting of GPs in a local area, and commissioning for primary care services and some specialized services is undertaken by *NHS England. Public health functions are largely delivered by local authorities, though some specialist functions are provided by *Public Health England. The relationship between the Secretary of State for Health and the NHS also changed in 2013. The Secretary of State for Health, via the *Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC), no longer has direct control of the day-to-day operation of the NHS. This has passed to NHS England. However, the DHSC continues to provide strategic leadership for the NHS.

Different arrangements apply in Northern Ireland, Wales, and Scotland.

NHS website: includes much basic medical information together with a guide to local services... national health service

(NSF, nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy) a rare condition, first reported in 1997, that occurs exclusively in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), who develop large areas of hardened skin with fibrotic nodules and plaques. Flexion contractures with an accompanying limitation of range of motion can also occur. Exposure to gadolinium, used as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging, has been identified as a causative factor, but many patients with severe CKD have been exposed to gadolinium without consequence. Linear gadolinium preparations (Omniscan, OptiMARK) appear to carry the highest risk of NSF. There is no cure for the condition.... nephrogenic systemic fibrosis

(in England) an official responsible to Parliament and appointed to protect the interests of patients in relation to administration of and provision of health care by the *National Health Service. He or she can investigate complaints about the NHS when they cannot be resolved locally. In Scotland, and in Wales, this role is undertaken by a Public Services Ombudsman.... parliamentary and health service ombudsman

see PHQ-9.... patient health questionnaire

see PACS.... picture archiving and communication system

(in Britain) a medical consultant with postgraduate training in public health. Formerly known as community physicians, such consultants undertake public health functions, either as *Directors of Public Health in local authorities or as consultants in public health in local authorities, *Public Health England, or elsewhere. See also public health specialist.... public health consultant

the ethics of population (as opposed to individual) health, including issues related to epidemiology, disease prevention, health promotion, *justice, and *equality. Public health ethics is commonly concerned with the tensions between individual *autonomy and *communitarianism and/or *utilitarianism.... public health ethics

the specialty concerned with preventing disease and improving health in populations as distinct from individuals. Formerly known as community medicine or social medicine, it includes *epidemiology, *health promotion, *health service planning, *health protection, and evaluation. See also public health consultant.... public health medicine

(OHS) a scheme by which employers provide a mainly preventive health service for employees. Specially trained doctors and nurses advise management on hazardous situations at work. Advice is also given to management to ensure that people with ill health or disability are not prevented from taking up employment and on the potential for rehabilitating employees with prolonged or repeated sickness absence. Instruction may be given to the workforce on simple first aid procedures, and *health promotion programmes may be offered in relation to nutrition, physical activity, and stress. With the approval of the *Health and Safety Executive, the OHS may conduct routine tests on employees working with potentially hazardous substances, such as lead. See also coshh.... occupational health service

(PHE) an executive agency of the Department of Health and Social Care with responsibility for providing national leadership on health protection, health improvement, and public health knowledge and information. In addition to the national team, there are four regional offices and nine local centres providing public health support to *clinical commissioning groups, local authorities, and health-care providers. PHE also hosts a network of specialist and reference microbiology laboratories. It was formed as a result of the Health and Social Care Act 2012; it absorbed the functions of a number of abolished bodies, including the *Health Protection Agency, the national network of public health observatories, and the National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse.

Public Health England website... public health england

(PHS) the oldest and one of the largest US federal health agencies. Founded in 1798 as a system of hospitals for sailors, the PHS is now the major health service operating division of the *Department of Health and Human Services and administers eleven agencies, including the *Food and Drug Administration, the National Institutes of Health, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The agency employs tens of thousands of people with a total annual budget well into the billions.... public health service

a public health practitioner with postgraduate training in public health or with demonstrated competence in key areas of public health practice. These specialists perform the same roles as *public health consultants but do not have medical training.... public health specialist

a collection of nerve fibres in the central nervous system that extend from the *motor cortex in the brain to the spinal cord and are responsible for initiating movement. In the medulla oblongata the fibres form a *pyramid (hence the name), within which they cross from one side of the brain to the opposite side of the spinal cord; this is called the decussation of the pyramids. Damage to the pyramidal system manifests in a specific pattern of weakness in the face, arms, and legs, abnormally brisk reflexes, and an extensor *plantar reflex (Babinski response).... pyramidal system

(RIS) a computer database used to keep details of all the patients attending a clinical radiology department. It records patient demographics, imaging procedures done, medications given and dosage, person performing the imaging, and time and place of examination. Radiologist reports interpreting the images will also feature here. The RIS is vital to the functioning of a picture archiving and communications system (see PACS) and the electronic medical record system.... radiology information system

the system of nerve pathways in the brain concerned with the level of consciousness – from the states of sleep, drowsiness, and relaxation to full alertness and attention. The system integrates information from all of the senses and from the cerebrum and cerebellum and determines the overall activity of the brain and the autonomic nervous system and patterns of behaviour during waking and sleeping.... reticular activating system

(RES) a community of cells – *phagocytes – spread throughout the body. It includes *macrophages and *monocytes. The RES is concerned with defence against microbial infection and with the removal of worn-out blood cells from the bloodstream. See also spleen.... reticuloendothelial system

(in Britain) a service concerned with promotion of health and wellbeing in schoolchildren, including the early detection of health and social problems and their subsequent treatment and surveillance.... school health service

any of various methods in which the application of an agreed numerical scale is used as a means of estimating the degree of a clinical situation, e.g. the severity of an injury, the degree of patient recovery, or the extent of malignancy. Examples include the *Glasgow Coma Scale (or scoring system) and the *injury scoring system.... scoring system

a type of health-care system in which there is only one purchaser of health-care services, usually the government. The NHS is a single-payer system.... single-payer system

a type of NHS trust that provides services across the NHS in England, rather than in a single defined geographical area. There are four special health authorities, which exist as arms-length bodies of the Department of Health and Social Care, independent of government: *NHS Blood and Transplant, *NHS Business Services Authority, *NHS Resolution and *NHS Counter Fraud Authority.... special health authority

(SHA) formerly a statutory organization in England that was responsible for strategic leadership, building capacity, organizational development, and performance management in the local National Health Service. SHAs were abolished by the Health and Social Care Act 2012; their responsibilities passed to *NHS England, *clinical commissioning groups, and *Public Health England.... strategic health authority

the system of blood vessels that supplies all parts of the body except the lungs. It consists of the aorta and all its branches, carrying oxygenated blood to the tissues, and all the veins draining deoxygenated blood into the vena cava. Compare pulmonary circulation.... systemic circulation

see shock.... systemic inflammatory response

see cardiovascular system.... vascular system

those parts of the body involved in balance. The peripheral vestibular system, or *vestibular apparatus, is in the inner ear. The central vestibular system comprises those parts of the brain that are involved in balance. The central vestibular system receives other inputs as well as from the ear, in particular inputs from the eyes and proprioceptors.... vestibular system

Amenorrhoea/lack of menstruation (M,B):

French basil, carrot seed, celery seed, cinnamon leaf, dill, sweet fennel, hops, hyssop, juniper, laurel, lovage, sweet marjoram, myrrh, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Dysmenorrhoea/cramp, painful or difficult menstruation (M,C,B):

Melissa, French basil, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, frankincense, hops, jasmine, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, sweet marjoram, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Cystitis (C,B,D):

Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, mastic, niaouli, parsley, Scotch pine, sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Frigidity (M,S,B,V):

Cassie, cinnamon leaf, jasmine, neroli, nutmeg, parsley, patchouli, black pepper, cabbage rose, rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, ylang ylang.

Lack of nursing milk (M):

Celery seed, dill, sweet fennel, hops.

Labour pain & childbirth aid (M,C,B):

Cinnamon leaf, jasmine, true lavender, nutmeg, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage.

Leucorrhoea/white discharge from the vagina (B,D):

Bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), cinnamon leaf, cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, mastic, myrrh, rosemary, clary sage, sandalwood, tea tree, turpentine.

Menopausal problems (M,B,V):

Cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, rose (cabbage & damask).

Menorrhagia/excessive menstruation (M,B):

Chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, rose (cabbage & damask).

Premenstrual tension/PMT (M,B,V):

Carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, true lavender, sweet marjoram, neroli, tarragon.

Pruritis/itching (D):

Bergamot, Atlas cedarwood, juniper, lavender, myrrh, tea tree.

Sexual overactivity (M,B):

Hops, sweet marjoram.

Thrush/candida (B,D):

Bergamot, geranium, myrrh, tea tree.

Urethritis (B,D):

Bergamot, cubebs, mastic, tea tree, turpentine.

Immune System

Chickenpox (C,S,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), true lavender, tea tree.

Colds/’flu (M,B,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, French basil, West Indian bay, bergamot, borneol, cabreuva, cajeput, camphor (white), caraway, cinnamon leaf, citronella, clove bud, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, frankincense, ginger, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, laurel, lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Fever (C,B):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, immortelle, juniper, lemon, lemongrass, lime, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, yarrow.

Measles (S,B,I,V):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lavender (spike & true), tea tree.... genito-urinary and endocrine systems