The proportion multiplied by 100. See “proportion”.
Besides these, there are always ozone, minerals and organic matter present in small and variable amounts, and more or less water vapour according to the weather. In the air of towns, sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen are important impurities derived from combustion. After air has been respired once, the oxygen falls by about 4 per cent and the carbonic acid rises to about 4 per cent, while organic matter and water vapour are greatly increased and the air rises in temperature. The cause of the discomfort felt in badly ventilated rooms and crowded halls is associated with the increase in the temperature and moisture of the air, but a high percentage of carbon dioxide may be present without causing any noticeable discomfort or appreciable quickening of the respiration. A combination of hot weather and emissions from vehicles and fossil-fuel combustion produces pollutants linked to a rise in the incidence of ASTHMA and other cardiorespiratory conditions. Falling levels of ozone in the upper atmosphere are also believed to contribute to global warming because ozone screens the earth from most of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.... air
Habitat: Cultivated throughout India, wild on coasts of Maharashtra, Gujarat and South India.
English: Curacao Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Indian Aloe, Jaffarabad Aloe.Ayurvedic: Kanyaasaara, Eleyaka (dried juice of the leaves). Kumaari, Kumaarikaa, Kanyaa, Grihkanyaa, Ghritkumaarika (plant).Unani: Gheekwaar, Sibr.Siddha/Tamil: Sotru Kattraazhai, Kumaari. Moosaambaram (dried juice).Folk: Elwaa, Musabbar (dried juice of leaves).Action: Purgative (causes griping), emmenagogue. Gel—topically emollient, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial (used for wound healing, sunburn).
Key application: In occasional constipation; contraindicated in intestinal obstruction and acutely inflamed intestinal diseases, ulcerative colitis, appendicitis. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of dried juice of leaves in dysmenorrhoea and diseases of the liver.Aloe vera improved the hypoglycaemic effect of glyburide (gliben- clamide) when one tablespoonful aloe juice was given orally in the morning and at bedtime to 36 diabetic patients for 42 days. The juice (same dose) showed antihyperglycaemic activity (independently). (Francis Brinker.)Anthraquinone glycosides, known as aloin, in small doses act as a tonic to the digestive system, and at higher doses become a strong purgative, as well as increase colonic secretions and peristaltic contractions. Resin fraction is also as important as aloin in cathartic action. In A. barbadensis the highest percentage of aloin is 21.8%.Aloe produces pelvic congestion and is used for uterine disorders, generally with Fe and carminatives. The pulp is used in menstrual suppressions.A molecule in the Aloe vera gel, ace- mannan, stimulates macrophages and releases immune system potentiators; enhances function of T cells and interferon production. Animal studies have shown promising results in sarcoma.The carboxypeptidase and salicylate components of Aloe gel can inhibit bradykinin, a pain-producing agent; C-glycosyl chromone appears to reduce topical inflammation. Aloe gel also slows or inhibits the synthesis of thromboxane, which may accelerate the healing of burns. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Dosage: Leaf pulp juice—10-20 ml. (CCRAS.) Dried leaf pulp juice— 125-500 mg powder. (API Vol. I.)... aloe barbadensisTreatment The best treatment is prompt surgical removal of the diseased appendix, usually with antibiotic cover. If performed early, before rupture occurs, APPENDICECTOMY is normally straightforward and recovery swift. If the appendix has already ruptured and there is abscess formation or free intra-abdominal pus, surgery is still the best treatment but postoperative complications are more likely, and full recovery may be slower.... appendicitis
Habitat: The hilly regions of India, also in Mount Abu in Rajasthan, in western Ghats, and from Konkan southward to Kerala.
English: Indian Wormwood, Fleabane, Dungwort, Mugwort, Wild Wormwood.Ayurvedic: Damanaka, Pushpachaa- mara, Gandhotkata. (Related sp.: A. siversiana Ehrh. ex Willd.)Unani: Afsanteen-e-Hindi. (National Formularly of Unani Medicine clubbed it with Baranjaasif.)Siddha/Tamil: Maasipattiri.Folk: Daunaa, Damanaa.Action: Leaf—emmenagogue, menstrual regulator, nervine, stomachic (in anorexia and dyspepsia), an- thelmintic, choleretic, diaphoretic.
An infusion of flower tops is administered in nervous and spasmodic affections. The herb is also used as an antilithic. Oil from leaves— antibacterial, antifungal in 1:1000 dilution.Key application: As emmenagogue. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The plant yields about 0.34% of an essential oil. Plants at lower altitude had more percentage of cineol, thu- jone, thujyl and citral, whereas from higher altitude terpenes are in higher percentage. The highest amount of cineol was reported to be 30%.The plant is also used as an inferior substitute for cinchona in fevers.... artemisia vulgarisHabitat: Grown as a pot herb in almost every part of India, except hills.
English: Indian Spinach.Ayurvedic: Upodikaa, Potaki, Maalvaa, Amritvallari.Siddha/Tamil: Vaslakkirai.Folk: Poi.Action: Demulcent, diuretic, laxative (a good substitute for spinach and purslane). Used as a cooling medicine in digestive disorders. Leaf juice is used in balanitis and catarrhal affections. Externally applied in urticaria, burns, scalds. Root—decoction is given to stop bilious vomiting and in intestinal complaints. Used as poultice to reduce local swellings; sap is used in acne.
Used for checking malnutrition in children.The essential amino acids are argi- nine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, threonine and tryptophan. The plant contains several vitamins and minerals, is rich in calcium and iron compounds and contains a low percentage of soluble oxalates. The leaves also contain carotenoids, organic acids and water- soluble polysaccharides, bioflavonoids and vitamin K.Dosage: Whole plant—10-20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)... basella albaAbnormal prion proteins accumulate in the brain and the spinal cord, damaging neurones (see NEURON(E)) and producing small cavities. Diagnosis can be made by tonsil (see TONSILS) biopsy, although work is under way to develop a diagnostic blood test. Abnormal prion proteins are unusually resistant to inactivation by chemicals, heat, X-RAYS or ULTRAVIOLET RAYS (UVR). They are resistant to cellular degradation and can convert normal prion proteins into abnormal forms. Human prion diseases, along with scrapie in sheep and BSE in cattle, belong to a group of disorders known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Abnormal prion proteins can transfer from one animal species to another, and variant CJD has occurred as a result of consumption of meat from cattle infected with BSE.
From 1995 to 1999, a scienti?c study of tonsils and appendixes removed at operation suggested that the prevalence of prion carriage may be as high as 120 per million. It is not known what percentage of these might go on to develop disease.
One precaution is that, since 2003, all surgical instruments used in brain biopsies have had to be quarantined and disposable instruments are now used in tonsillectomy.
Measures have also been introduced to reduce the risk of transmission of CJD from transfusion of blood products.
In the past, CJD has also been acquired from intramuscular injections of human cadaveric pituitary-derived growth hormone and corneal transplantation.
The most common form of CJD remains the sporadic variety, although the eventual incidence of variant CJD may not be known for many years.... creutzfeldt-jakob disease (cjd)
The description ‘diaphragm’ is also used for the hemispherical rubber (‘dutch’) cap used in conjunction with a chemical spermicide as a contraceptive. It ?ts over the neck of the uterus (cervix) inside the vagina. (See CONTRACEPTION.)... diaphragm
Most of the detailed information available about the practice of euthanasia comes from the Netherlands, where court rulings in the 1970s and 1980s began to permit voluntary euthanasia under certain circumstances (although both euthanasia and assisted suicide remain technically illegal). The di?culty of maintaining limits was highlighted in 1994–5 when it became clear that a small percentage of Dutch patients undergoing euthanasia had previously expressed an interest but not speci?cally requested it (involuntary euthanasia) or had no known desire for it and may have been opposed to it (non-voluntary euthanasia). The relevance of terminal illness and physical suffering was tested in Holland in 1994 when a patient received euthanasia who was not physically ill and subject to mental rather than physical suffering. Nevertheless, Dutch doctors risk prosecution if they fail to follow rules of careful conduct when carrying out euthanasia or assisted suicide. (See also ETHICS; SUICIDE.)... euthanasia
Haemophilia affects approximately 1:4,000 of the UK population but only 1:20,000 is severely affected. Severity of the disease depends upon the percentage, compared with normal, of factor VIII activity present. Less than 1 per cent and there will be spontaneous bleeding into joints and muscles; 1–5 per cent and there will be occasional spontaneous bleeding and severe bleeding after minor injury; 5–25 per cent and there will only be severe bleeding after major injury. Before treatment was available, severe haemophiliacs suffered from acute pain and deformity from bleeds into joints and muscles. Bleeding also occurred into the gut, kidneys and brain, and few survived past adolescence.
Freeze-dried factor VIII may be kept in domestic refrigerators. Haemophiliacs can use it to abort minor bleeds by reconstituting it and injecting it intravenously. More major bleeding or preparation for surgery involves raising factor VIII levels to 30–100 per cent by giving cryoprecipitate.
With treatment, most haemophiliacs lead normal lives, although obviously dangerous or contact sports should be avoided. Before donors of blood were screened for HEPATITIS B and C or for HIV infection (see AIDS/HIV), some individuals with haemophilia receiving factor VIII were unwittingly infected with those diseases. Today’s screening procedures make such infections very unlikely.
There is a National Haemophilia Register and each registered sufferer carries a card with details about his or her condition. Information may also be obtained from NHS haemophilia centres and the Haemophilia Society.... haemophilia
Humidity is expressed as relative humidity (RH). This is the amount of moisture in the air expressed as a percentage of the maximum possible at that temperature. If the temperature of a room is raised without increasing the moisture content, the RH falls. The average outdoor RH in Britain is around 70–80 per cent; with central heating it may drop to 25 per cent or lower. This is why humidi?cation, as it is known, of the air is essential in buildings heated by modern heating systems. The aim should be to keep the RH at around 30–50 per cent. In houses this may be achieved quite satisfactorily by having a jug or basin of water in the room, or some receptacle that can be attached to the heater. In o?ces, some more elaborate form of humidi?er is necessary. Those suffering from chronic BRONCHITIS are particularly susceptible to dry air, as are those individuals with disorders of the EYE because the secretions that bathe the eyes and keep them moist are unnaturally dried out. (See also VENTILATION.)... humidification
Habitat: Native to tropical America; cultivated throughout India for edible tubers.
English: Sweet potato.Ayurvedic: Mukhaaluka, Rataalu, Raktaalu, Raktapindaka, Raktakan- da.Siddha/Tamil: Sakkareivelleikulan- gu.Unani: Shakarkand, Rataalu.Action: Root—used in strangury, urinary discharges, burning sensation, thirst. Whole plant—used in low fever and skin diseases.
Cooked tubers contain reducing sugars 6.45, sucrose 2.23, maltose 864, dextrins 0.51 and polysaccharides 14-13%. Cooking increases the sweetness as a result of the hydrolysis of starch to maltose and dextrins through the action of beta-amylase.Sweet potatoes are rich in starch content. During the storage a part of starch content is converted into reducing sugars and subsequently into sucrose. In a sample stored for 5 months, the starch content was reduced from 19.1% to 14.1% while the percentage of reducing sugars (as dextrose) and sucrose increased from 0.9 to 1.7 and 1.9 to 6.1% respectively.Indian types with white flesh contain little or no carotene, while American types with pink flesh contain as high as 5.4-7.2 mg/100 g of carotene. Vitamins present in the tubers are : thiamine 0.09-0.14, riboflavin 0.05-0.10 and vitamin C 16-22 mg/100 g.The hot aqueous extract of leaves exhibits significant inhibitory activity of rat lens aldose reductase (AR). Ellagic and 3,5-dicaffoylquinic acids have been isolated as potent inhibitors.The leaves also contain polysaccha- rides which increase the platelet count in experimental animals due to enhanced production ofthrombopoietin.From the stem and root, hexadecyl, octadecyl and eicosyl p-coumarates have been isolated.The tubers show significant lectin activity and exhibit haemagglutinating activity in trypsinized rabbit erythro- cytes.... ipomoea batatasHabitat: Sea coast from Bengal to Gujarat.
Folk: Kohlu (Andhra Pradesh).Action: Ash—used in mange and itch.
Air-dried plant contains 8.97% ash; a high percentage of sodium and chloride ions (sodium 5.68, chloride 10.02%). The plant is a source of alkaline earth (called Sajji), used for extracting sodium carbonate.... salicornia brachiataRarely, the UTERUS may be completely absent as a result of abnormal development. In such patients secondary sexual development is normal but MENSTRUATION is absent (primary amennorhoea). The chromosomal make-up of the patient must be checked (see CHROMOSOMES; GENES): in a few cases the genotype is male (testicular feminisation syndrome). No treatment is available, although the woman should be counselled.
The uterus develops as two halves which fuse together. If the fusion is incomplete, a uterine SEPTUM results. Such patients with a double uterus (uterus didelphys) may have fertility problems which can be corrected by surgical removal of the uterine septum. Very rarely there may be two uteri with a double vagina.
The uterus of most women points forwards (anteversion) and bends forwards (ante?exion). However, about 25 per cent of women have a uterus which is pointed backwards (retroversion) and bent backwards (retro?exion). This is a normal variant and very rarely gives rise to any problems. If it does, the attitude of the uterus can be corrected by an operation called a ventrosuspension.
Endometritis The lining of the uterine cavity is called the ENDOMETRIUM. It is this layer that is partially shed cyclically in women of reproductive age giving rise to menstruation. Infection of the endometrium is called endometritis and usually occurs after a pregnancy or in association with the use of an intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD – see CONTRACEPTION). The symptoms are usually of pain, bleeding and a fever. Treatment is with antibiotics. Unless the FALLOPIAN TUBES are involved and damaged, subsequent fertility is unaffected. Very rarely, the infection is caused by TUBERCULOSIS. Tuberculous endometritis may destroy the endometrium causing permanent amenorrhoea and sterility.
Menstrual disorders are common. Heavy periods (menorrhagia) are often caused by ?broids (see below) or adenomyosis (see below) or by anovulatory cycles. Anovulatory cycles result in the endometrium being subjected to unopposed oestrogen stimulation and occasionally undergoing hyperplasia. Treatment is with cyclical progestogens (see PROGESTOGEN) initially. If this form of treatment fails, endoscopic surgery to remove the endometrium may be successful. The endometrium may be removed using LASER (endometrial laser ablation) or electrocautery (transcervical resection of endometrium). Hysterectomy (see below) will cure the problem if endoscopic surgery fails. Adenomyosis is a condition in which endometrial tissue is found in the muscle layer (myometrium) of the uterus. It usually presents as heavy and painful periods, and occasionally pain during intercourse. Hysterectomy is usually required.
Oligomenorhoea (scanty or infrequent periods) may be caused by a variety of conditions including thyroid disease (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF). It is most commonly associated with usage of the combined oral contraceptive pill. Once serious causes have been eliminated, the patient should be reassured. No treatment is necessary unless conception is desired, in which case the patient may require induction of ovulation.
Primary amenorrhoea means that the patient has never had a period. She should be investigated, although usually it is only due to an inexplicable delay in the onset of periods (delayed menarche) and not to any serious condition. Secondary amenorrhoea is the cessation of periods after menstruation has started. The most common cause is pregnancy. It may be also caused by endocrinological or hormonal problems, tuberculous endometritis, emotional problems and severe weight loss. The treatment of amenorrhoea depends on the cause.
Dysmenorrhoea, or painful periods, is the most common disorder; in most cases the cause is unknown, although the disorder may be due to excessive production of PROSTAGLANDINS.
Irregular menstruation (variations from the woman’s normal menstrual pattern or changes in the duration of bleeding or the amount) can be the result of a disturbance in the balance of OESTROGENS and PROGESTERONE hormone which between them regulate the cycle. For some time after the MENARCHE or before the MENOPAUSE, menstruation may be irregular. If irregularity occurs in a woman whose periods are normally regular, it may be due to unsuspected pregnancy, early miscarriage or to disorders in the uterus, OVARIES or pelvic cavity. The woman should seek medical advice.
Fibroids (leiomyomata) are benign tumours arising from the smooth muscle layer (myometrium) of the uterus. They are found in 80 per cent of women but only a small percentage give rise to any problems and may then require treatment. They may cause heavy periods and occasionally pain. Sometimes they present as a mass arising from the pelvis with pressure symptoms from the bladder or rectum. Although they can be shrunk medically using gonadorelin analogues, which raise the plasma concentrations of LUTEINISING HORMONE and FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE, this is not a long-term solution. In any case, ?broids only require treatment if they are large or enlarging, or if they cause symptoms. Treatment is either myomectomy (surgical removal) if fertility is to be retained, or a hysterectomy.
Uterine cancers tend to present after the age of 40 with abnormal bleeding (intermenstrual or postmenopausal bleeding). They are usually endometrial carcinomas. Eighty per cent present with early (Stage I) disease. Patients with operable cancers should be treated with total abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral excision of the ovaries and Fallopian tubes. Post-operative RADIOTHERAPY is usually given to those patients with adverse prognostic factors. Pre-operative radiotherapy is still given by some centres, although this practice is now regarded as outdated. PROGESTOGEN treatment may be extremely e?ective in cases of recurrence, but its value remains unproven when used as adjuvant treatment. In 2003 in England and Wales, more than 2,353 women died of uterine cancer.
Disorders of the cervix The cervix (neck of the womb) may produce an excessive discharge due to the presence of a cervical ectopy or ectropion. In both instances columnar epithelium – the layer of secreting cells – which usually lines the cervical canal is exposed on its surface. Asymptomatic patients do not require treatment. If treatment is required, cryocautery – local freezing of tissue – is usually e?ective.
Cervical smears are taken and examined in the laboratory to detect abnormal cells shed from the cervix. Its main purpose is to detect cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) – the presence of malignant cells in the surface tissue lining the cervix – since up to 40 per cent of women with this condition will develop cervical cancer if the CIN is left untreated. Women with abnormal smears should undergo colposcopy, a painless investigation using a low-powered microscope to inspect the cervix. If CIN is found, treatment consists of simply removing the area of abnormal skin, either using a diathermy loop or laser instrument.
Unfortunately, cervical cancer remains the most common of gynaecological cancers. The most common type is squamous cell carcinoma and around 4,000 new cases (all types) are diagnosed in England and Wales every year. As many as 50 per cent of the women affected may die from the disease within ?ve years. Cervical cancer is staged clinically in four bands according to how far it has extended, and treatment is determined by this staging. Stage I involves only the mucosal lining of the cervix and cone BIOPSY may be the best treatment in young women wanting children. In Stage IV the disease has spread beyond the cervix, uterus and pelvis to the URINARY BLADDER or RECTUM. For most women, radiotherapy or radical Wertheim’s hysterectomy – the latter being preferable for younger women – is the treatment of choice if the cancer is diagnosed early, both resulting in survival rates of ?ve years in 80 per cent of patients. Wertheim’s hysterectomy is a major operation in which the uterus, cervix, upper third of vagina and the tissue surrounding the cervix are removed together with the LYMPH NODES draining the area. The ovaries may be retained if desired. Patients with cervical cancer are treated by radiotherapy, either because they present too late for surgery or because the surgical skill to perform a radical hysterectomy is not available. These operations are best performed by gynaecological oncologists who are gynaecological surgeons specialising in the treatment of gynaecological tumours. The role of CHEMOTHERAPY in cervical and uterine cancer is still being evaluated.
Prolapse of the uterus is a disorder in which the organ drops from its normal situation down into the vagina. First-degree prolapse is a slight displacement of the uterus, second-degree a partial displacement and third-degree when the uterus can be seen outside the VULVA. It may be accompanied by a CYSTOCOELE (the bladder bulges into the front wall of the vagina), urethrocoele (the urethra bulges into the vagina) and rectocoele (the rectal wall bulges into the rear wall of the vagina). Prolapse most commonly occurs in middle-aged women who have had children, but the condition is much less common now than in the past when prenatal and obstetric care was poor, women had more pregnancies and their general health was poor. Treatment is with pelvic exercises, surgical repair of the vagina or hysterectomy. If the woman does not want or is not ?t for surgery, an internal support called a pessary can be ?tted – and changed periodically.
Vertical section of female reproductive tract (viewed from front) showing sites of common gynaecological disorders.
Hysterectomy Many serious conditions of the uterus have traditionally been treated by hysterectomy, or removal of the uterus. It remains a common surgical operation in the UK, but is being superseded in the treatment of some conditions, such as persistent MENORRHAGIA, with endometrial ablation – removal of the lining of the uterus using minimally invasive techniques, usually using an ENDOSCOPE and laser. Hysterectomy is done to treat ?broids, cancer of the uterus and cervix, menorrhagia, ENDOMETRIOSIS and sometimes for severely prolapsed uterus. Total hysterectomy is the usual type of operation: it involves the removal of the uterus and cervix and sometimes the ovaries. After hysterectomy a woman no longer menstruates and cannot become pregnant. If the ovaries have been removed as well and the woman had not reached the menopause, hormone replacement therapy (HRT – see MENOPAUSE) should be considered. Counselling helps the woman to recover from the operation which can be an emotionally challenging event for many.... uterus, diseases of
The amount of active constituent of a plant is not constant. The percentage of active constituent varies greatly. For this reason official pharmacy standardises drugs. See: WHOLE PLANT. ... active principle
Habitat: Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Unani: Chirchataa, Chirchitaa, Chirchitta.Folk: Kheechar Chirchataa.Action: Immunostimulatory, antiproliferatory, antiageing; antioxidant.
The leaves and flowers contain free quercetin (1.28 and 1.58 mg/g dry weight, respectively), and bound kaem- pferol. Total alkaloid percentage is nearly the same in shoots (1.26%) and fruits (1.24%) but lower in cal- li (0.83%) and roots (0.67%). Fruits had highest atropine content (0.95%) and shoots the highest hyoscyamine content (0.33%).Flavonoids are active against E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans (quercetin does not show activity against Candida albicans).The polysaccharide extract from fruits showed antiageing, immunos- timulatory and antiproliferatory activities. The polysaccharide acts as an an- tioxidant and prevented CCl4-induced increases in lipid peroxidases in liver. It can also protect against genetic damage from mutagenic and genotoxic compounds. This activity leads to its potential use in preventing the adverse effects of chemotherapeutic agents.The fruit contain beta-carotene (8 mg/100 g dry weight), also free amino acids (1.0-2.6%); major amino acid is proline.The dried fruit and root bark reduce cholesterol level by preventing its absorption in gastrointestinal tract. A constituent of the root bark, kuko- amine exhibits cholesterol lowering, antihypertensive and hypoglycaemic effects. Hepatoprotective activity is attributed to a cerebroside constituent found in the fruit. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)The fruit and root bark is contraindi- cated in bleeding disorders and hypoglycemia. (Sharon M. Herr.)... lycium barbarumHabitat: Native to Africa; introduced into India.
English: Fever plant of Sierra Leone.Folk: Taap-maari Tulasi (Maharashtra).Action: Leaves—febrifugal. Used as a remedy for coughs and fevers. Oil—antiseptic.
Ocimum viride species, cultivated in Jammu-Tawi, gives maximum oil yield(0.4%) at full bloom stage and highest percentage of thymol (55.12%) in the oil, which can be used as a substitute for thyme-ajowan oil.... ocimum virideHabitat: Manipur, Naga and Lushai hills, Chota Nagpur, Western Ghats.
English: Kidney Tea Plant, Java Tea.Folk: Mutri-Tulasi (Maharashtra).Action: Leaves—diuretic, used in nephrosis and severe cases of oedema. An infusion of leaves is given as a specific in the treatment of various kidney and bladder diseases including nephrocirrhosis and phosphaturia, also in rheumatism and gout.
Key application: In irrigation therapy for bacterial and inflammatory diseases of the lower urinary tract and renal gravel. (German Commission E.) Flower tops and leaves (samples from Indonesia) contained methyl ri- pariochromene A. In another sample, leaves also yielded several phenolic compounds including lipophilic flavones, flavonol glycosides and caf- feic acid derivatives. Rosmarinic acid and 2,3-dicaffeoyl-tartaric acid (67% of total phenolics, 94.5% in hot water extract) were major compounds of caffeic acid derivatives.The leaves also contain a high percentage (0.7-00.8) of potassium salts. Presence oforthosiphonin and potassium salts help in keeping uric acid and urate salts in solution, thus prevents calculi and other deposits. The leaf extract lowers blood sugar in diabetics, but not consistently.Orthosiphon pallidus Royle, equated with the Ayurvedic herb Arjaka and Shveta-Kutherak and known as Ajagur and Naganda-baavari in folk medicine, is used for dysuria and colic.... orthosiphon grandiflorusEnergy production in humans is measured by oxygen uptake.
Every litre of oxygen taken into the body produces 4.8 kilocalories of energy.
Energy production is calculated by comparing the percentage of oxygen in air inhaled and exhaled.... calorimetry
– is caused by the bacterium Yersinis pestis. Plague remains a major infection in many tropical countries.
The reservoir for the bacillus in urban infection lies in the black rat (Rattus rattus), and less importantly the brown (sewer) rat (Rattus norvegicus). It is conveyed to humans by the rat ?ea, usually Xenopsylla cheopis: Y. pestis multiplies in the gastrointestinal tract of the ?ea, which may remain infectious for up to six weeks. In the pneumonic form (see below), human-to-human transmission can occur by droplet infection. Many lower mammals (apart from the rat) can also act as a reservoir in sylvatic transmission which remains a major problem in the US (mostly in the south-western States); ground-squirrels, rock-squirrels, prairie dogs, bobcats, chipmunks, etc. can be affected.
Clinically, symptoms usually begin 2–8 days after infection; disease begins with fever, headache, lassitude, and aching limbs. In over two-thirds of patients, enlarged glands (buboes) appear – usually in the groin, but also in the axillae and cervical neck; this constitutes bubonic plague. Haemorrhages may be present beneath the skin causing gangrenous patches and occasionally ulcers; these lesions led to the epithet ‘Black Death’. In a favourable case, fever abates after about a week, and the buboes discharge foul-smelling pus. In a rapidly fatal form (septicaemic plague), haematogenous transmission produces mortality in a high percentage of cases. Pneumonic plague is associated with pneumonic consolidation (person-to-person transmission) and death often ensues on the fourth or ?fth day. (The nursery rhyme ‘Ringo-ring o’ roses, a pocketful o’ posies, atishoo! atishoo!, we all fall down’ is considered to have originated in the 17th century and refers to this form of the disease.) In addition, meningitic and pharyngeal forms of the disease can occur; these are unusual. Diagnosis consists of demonstration of the causative organism.
Treatment is with tetracycline or doxycycline; a range of other antibiotics is also e?ective. Plague remains (together with CHOLERA and YELLOW FEVER) a quarantinable disease. Contacts should be disinfected with insecticide powder; clothes, skins, soft merchandise, etc. which have been in contact with the infection can remain infectious for several months; suspect items should be destroyed or disinfected with an insecticide. Ships must be carefully checked for presence of rats; the rationale of anchoring a distance from the quay prevents access of vermin. (See also EPIDEMIC; PANDEMIC; NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.)... plague
Habitat: All over India, cultivated as a vegetable.
English: Common Purslane.Ayurvedic: Brihat Lonikaa, Lonaa, Loni, Ghoddhika, Ghotikaa, Upodika, Khursaa.Unani: Khurfaa, Kulfaa.Siddha/Tamil: Pulli-keerai, Parup- pukirai.Action: Refrigerant (reduces body heat), mild spasmodic, diuretic, antiscorbutic. Used in scurvy and in diseases of liver, spleen, kidney and bladder; also in dysuria, stomatitis and dysentery. A paste of leaves is applied to swellings, erysipelas, burns and scalds. Seeds—diuretic, antidysenteric; applied externally to burns and scalds.
A crude protein-free extract of the herb contained l-nor-adrenaline, do- pamine and l-dopa, also catechol. (The fresh plant contained 2.5 mg/g l-nor- adrenaline in one sample.) The extract gave a strong pressor response when injected intravenously into anaesthetized dogs.The oral administration of the ho- mogenates of P. oleracea reduced the blood sugar level of alloxan-diabetic rabbits to normal.The extract of the leaves and stems reduced muscle tone in individuals suffering from spasticity and exhibited skeletal muscle relaxant activity both in vitro and in vivo. The extract produced dose-dependent negative in- otropic and chronotropic effects and pressor response on rat blood pressure.The diuretic action of the herb is attributed to the presence of high percentage of potassium salts.Dosage: Plant-125-400 mg powder; juice—1-20 ml (CCRAS.)... portulaca oleraceaT.b. gambiense infection, enlarged glands in the neck (Winterbottom’s sign) may be striking. Onset of disease is accompanied by fever, progressive ANAEMIA, and enlarged glands; these signs and symptoms are followed by increasing lethargy, slowing of mentality, and physical weakness, and give way to headache and an increasing tendency to sleep. These symptoms are caused by proliferation of parasites in the patient’s cerebral blood vessels; this is accompanied by in?ammatory changes and disorganisation of nervous tissue. Patients become emaciated and develop bed sores. Death ?nally takes place either as a result of gross emaciation or of an intercurrent infection.
Diagnosis is by detection of trypanosomes in a blood specimen or, alternatively, a sample of cerebrospinal ?uid. Serological tests are of great value in diagnosis.
Treatment is with suramine or pentamidine; when cerebral involvement has ensued, melarsoprol – which penetrates the blood-brain barrier – is of value. In T.b. gambiense infection, e?ornithine has recently given encouraging results; however, this form of CHEMOTHERAPY is not e?ective in a T.b. rhodesiense infection. From the point of view of prevention, control of the tsetse-?y population is crucial; even so, only a very small percentage of these vectors is infected with Trypanosoma spp.... sleeping sickness
Idiopathic stammering begins at some time between the onset of speech and puberty, mostly between 2–5 years of age. Acquired stammering at a later age due to brain damage is rare. The prevalence of stammering (the percentage of the population actually stammering at any point in time) is approximately 0·9 per cent. Three times as many boys as girls stammer. About 70 per cent of stammering children recover with little or no therapy. Stammerers have not been shown to demonstrate di?erences in personality from non-stammerers; there are, however, indications that at least some stammerers show minimal di?erences from ?uent speakers in cerebral processing of verbal material.
There is a genetic predisposition towards stammering. The risk of stammering among ?rst-degree relatives of stammerers is more than three times the population risk. In 77 per cent of identical twins, either both stammer or both are ?uent. Only 33 per cent of non-identical twins agree in this way. As there are identical twins who di?er for stammering, environmental factors must be important for some stammerers. There are relatively large numbers of stammerers in highly competitive societies, where status and prestige are important and high standards of speech competence are valued.
Di?erent treatments have been demonstrated to produce considerable bene?t, their basic outline being similar. A long period of time is spent in training stammerers to speak in a di?erent way (?uency-shaping techniques). This may include slowing down the rate of speech, gentle onset of utterance, continuous ?ow with correct juncturing, etc. When the targets have been achieved within the clinic, a series of planned speech assignments outside the clinic is undertaken. In these assignments, and initially in everyday situations, the ?uency-enchancing techniques have to be used conscientiously. Gradually speech is shaped towards normality requiring less and less e?ort. Therapy may also include some work on attitude change (i.e. helping the client to see him or herself as a ?uent speaker) and possibly general communicative skills training.
For information about organisations concerned with stammering, see Appendix 2.... stammering
Habitat: Cultivated as a food crop mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh., Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan.
English: Wheat.Ayurvedic: Godhuuma.Folk: Gehun.Action: Wheat germ oil is rich in tocopherol (vitamin E) content, total tocopherols 1897 mcg/g, alpha tocopherol 67%. The presence of ergosterol (provitamin D) has also been reported.
Wheat germ is also used for its minerals, proteins and lipid contents. Germ proteins are rich in lysine (5.285.55 g/100 g protein) and possess high biological value (94%) and protein efficiency ratio (2.9).Wheat germ contains haemaggluti- nating and antipyretic factors, but these are destroyed by toasting. It also contains haemoproteins, possessing per- oxidase activity.In adult rats, addition of wheat germ (7%) to a high fat (cholesterol) diet significantly decreased VLDL-cholesterol and VLDL-triglycerides and increased the HDL-cholesterol after-7 weeks of feeding.Bran oil contains tocopherols, but major part of them (68%) is in epsilon form; alpha-tocopherol forms only 11% of the total.Gluten lipids, associated with gluten, contain a high percentage of linoleic acid; lowering of serum cholesterol level has been observed in experiments (lipid-free gluten is devoid of cholesterol-lowering effect).Sensitivity to gluten has also been reported (even when whole wheat flour was used).... triticum aestivumElecampane (Inula) has a direct effect on TB bacilli, controlling night sweats and localising the disease. Agents yielding salicylates (mild analgesics) Meadowsweet, White Willow, etc are of value. Echinacea increases phagocytic power of the leucocytes and may normalise percentage count of neutraphiles. To meet individual needs, it will be necessary to vary treatment many times during the course of the disease.
Alternatives. Echinacea, Elecampane, Balm of Gilead buds (Hyde), Gotu Kola, Comfrey root, Iceland Moss. Rupturewort promotes elasticity of lung tissue.
Decoction. Equal parts: Iceland Moss, Comfrey root, Elecampane root, Liquorice. Mix. 1oz to 1 pint water gently simmered 20 minutes in a covered vessel. Dose: Half a cup thrice daily.
Alternative formulae:– Powders. White Willow 2; Comfrey 1; Echinacea 1; Ginger quarter. Mix. Dose: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tinctures. White Willow 2; Echinacea 1; Blue Cohosh half; White Poplar half; Tincture Capsicum quarter. Mix. 1 teaspoon thrice daily before meals.
Tincture Krameria (Rhatany root), Dose: 30-60 drops in water thrice daily.
Fenugreek seed tea.
Comfrey. Potential benefit of Comfrey root outweighs risk.
Topical. Compresses: Mullein leaves, Lobelia, Comfrey root or Fenugreek. Evening Primrose oil. No massage to affected joints.
Diet. Low carbohydrate. Oily fish.
Supplements. Vitamins A, B6, B12, D, Niacin, Calcium, Iron, Phosphorus.
General. Tuberculosis is a notifiable disease for which specific medical treatment is available. Failure to comply may expose a practitioner to a charge of negligence. ... arthritis – tuberculous
Symptoms. Not all present at once. Hot flushes, weight gain, depression, urinary frequency, headaches, backache, painful breasts, vaginal discomfort, cannot sleep or concentrate and gets irritable. Cries easily. Poor sexual response.
The hot sweats must not be misdiagnosed. They may be due to an over-worked thyroid gland which requires Kelp, Bugleweed. Palpitations may be due to tachycardia – see: CARDIO-VASCULAR AGENTS: Hawthorn, Lily of the Valley, Motherwort, etc. Tiredness often points to anaemia – see: ANAEMIA.
Oestrogen deficiency predisposes to osteoporosis (weakening and softening of the bones), height loss. Increased flow, or spotting, after an interval of 6 months should be investigated. Excessive blood loss may be due to fibroids.
Alternatives. Herbs to enable women to adjust naturally to the menopause are many and varied. In general use: Agnus Castus (ovarian hormone precurser), Black Haw (Uterine relaxant), Broom (gentle diuretic and heart restorative), Clivers, Goldenseal, Helonias (ovarian hormone precurser), Lady’s Mantle, Life root, Lime flowers, Marjoram, Motherwort, Nettles, Oats (nutrient), Parsley tea, Pennyroyal, Raspberry leaves, Skullcap (tension), St John’s Wort (anxiety), Valerian (nervous excitability).
For menopausal flooding, see: MENORRHAGIA.
Hot flushes: see entry.
With circulatory disorders, add Rosemary.
Alternative formulae. Teas. (1) Motherwort and Raspberry leaves. (2) Lady’s Mantle, Lime flowers, Yarrow. (3) Raspberry leaves, Broom, Clivers. Place 1 heaped teaspoon in each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; 1 cup thrice daily. (4) Sage tea. (Chinese traditional)
Vitamin E. Hot flushes and circulatory distress.
Evening Primrose oil capsules.
Formula. Agnus Castus 2; Black Haw 1; Valerian half. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Diet. Infrequency of hot flushes and other menopausal symptoms in Japanese women are believed to be related to their Soya-rich diet, Soya containing isoflavonoids which are similar to human oestrogen. Avoid coffee. Reduce tea, Cola drinks, Alcohol.
Vitamins. The condition makes heavy demands upon the vitamin reserves. C, 1g morning and evening. E, 500iu morning and evening. B-complex, B6.
Minerals. Calcium helps reduce risk of fracture, particularly in menopausal women who may increase their intake to 800mg daily – calcium citrate malate being more effective than the carbonate. Dried milk powder contains high percentage of Calcium. ... menopause
Tobacco is used for smoking, chewing, or as snuff by billions of people.
It contains a variable percentage of nicotine, and several carcinogenic substances.
There is a direct proportion between the amount of tobacco used, the period over which it is used, and the likelihood of cancer.
Smokers are at increased risk of several types of cancer, including lung cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, and pancreatic cancer (see pancreas, cancer of).
All tobacco users have an increased risk of cancers of the oral cavity (see mouth cancer), pharynx (see pharynx, cancer of), larynx (see larynx, cancer of) and oesophagus (see oesophagus, cancer of).... tobacco
Water provides the medium in which all metabolic reactions take place (see metabolism), and transports substances around the body. The blood plasma carries water to all body tissues, and excess water from tissues for elimination via the liver, kidneys, lungs, and skin. The passage of water in the tissue fluid into and out of cells takes place by osmosis.
Water is taken into the body in food and drink and is lost in urine and faeces, as exhaled water vapour, and by sweating (see dehydration). The amount of water excreted in urine is regulated by the kidneys (see also ADH). Extra water is needed to excrete excess amounts of substances, such as sugar or salt, in the blood, and high water intake is essential in hot climates where a large amount of water is lost in sweat.
In some disorders, such as kidney failure or heart failure, insufficient water is excreted in the urine, resulting in oedema.... water
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: P. officinalis, pimento, pimenta, Jamaica pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree which reaches about 10 metres high and begins to produce fruit in its third year. Each fruit contains two kidney-shaped green seeds which turn glossy black upon ripening.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the West Indies and South America, it is cultivated extensively in Jamaica, Cuba and, to a lesser degree, in Central America. Imported berries are distilled in Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES: Four other varieties of pimento are found in Venezuela, Guyana and the West Indies which are used locally as spices.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for flatulent indigestion and externally for neuralgic or rheumatic pain. Pimento water is used as a vehicle for medicines which ease dyspepsia and constipation since it helps prevent griping pains. It is used extensively as a domestic spice – allspice is so called because it tastes like a combination of cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the leaves, and 2. the fruit. The green unripe berries contain more oil than the ripe berries, but the largest percentage of oil is contained in the shell of the fruit. An oleoresin from the berries is also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pimenta leaf oil is a yellowish-red or brownish liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy scent, similar to cloves. 2. Pimenta berry oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet warm balsamic-spicy bodynote (middle note) and fresh, clean top note. It blends well with ginger, geranium, lavender, opopanax, labdanum, ylang ylang, patchouli, neroli, oriental and spicy bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly eugenol, less in the fruit (60–80 per cent) than in the leaves (up to 96 per cent), also methyl eugenol, cineol, phellandrene and cryophyllene among others.
SAFETY DATA: Eugenol irritates the mucous membranes, and has been found to cause dermal irritation. Pimenta leaf and berry oil should therefore be used with care in low dilutions only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:
Circulation, muscles and joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscle cramp, rheumatism, stiffness etc. ‘Used in tiny amounts … in a massage oil for chest infections, for severe muscle spasm to restore mobility quickly, or where extreme cold is experienced.’1
Respiratory System: Chills, congested coughs, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion, nausea.
Nervous System: Depression, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, tension and stress.
OTHER USES: Used in aromatic carminative medicines; as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially soaps, aftershaves, spicy and oriental fragrances. Both leaf and berry oil are used extensively for flavouring foods, especially savoury and frozen foods, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... allspice
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Sweet basil, Comoran basil (oil), Reunion basil (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Botanically classified as identical from the French basil, though it is a larger plant with a harsher odour and different constituents.
DISTRIBUTION: Mainly produced in the Comoro Islands, but it is also processed in Madagascar.
OTHER SPECIES: The exotic basil is a dramatically different chemotype to the French basil and probably a seperate sub-species (possibly a form of O. canum), although this has not been specified. Essential oils are also produced in Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, Brazil and Indonesia from various chemotypes of the East Indian or shrubby basil (O. gratissimum), which contain a high percentage of either thymol or eugenol. The hairy or hoary basil (O. canum), originating in East Africa and found in India and South America, is also used to extract oils rich in either methyl cinnamate or camphor, which are produced in West and East Africa, India, the West Indies and Indonesia. See also entry on French basil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: See French Basil.
ACTIONS: See Basil French.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: The Exotic type oil is yellow or pale green, with a slightly coarse sweet-herbaceous odour with a camphoraceous tinge. It’s scent does not compare with the ‘true’ sweet basil oil.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly methyl chavicol (70–88 per cent), with small amounts of linalol, cineol, camphor, eugenol, limonene and citronellol.
SAFETY DATA: Methyl chavicol is moderately toxic and irritating to the skin: ‘the methyl chavicol content of Comoran basil is sufficient reason to discard it for therapeutic usage in favour of the French type.’6 There has also been some recent concern over the possible carcinogenic effects of methyl chavicol. Basil should be avoided during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USE The oil is employed in high class fragrances, soaps and dental products; used extensively in major food categories especially meat products and savories.... basil, exotic
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: Atlantic cedar, Atlas cedar, African cedar, Moroccan cedarwood (oil), libanol (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Pyramid-shaped evergreen tree with a majestic stature, up to 40 metres high. The wood itself is hard and strongly aromatic, due to the high percentage of essential oil which it contains.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Atlas mountains of Algeria; the oil is mainly produced in Morocco.
OTHER SPECIES: Believed to have originated from the famous Lebanon cedars (C. libani), which grow wild in Lebanon and on the island of Cyprus. It is also a close botanical relation to the Himalayan deodar cedarwood (C. deodora), which produces a very similar essential oil. (NB the oil is quite different from the Texas or Virginia cedarwood.)
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil from the Lebanon cedar was possibly the first to be extracted, it was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalming purposes, cosmetics and perfumery. The oil was one of the ingredients of ‘mithridat’, a renowned poison antidote that was used for centuries. The Lebanon cedar was prized as a building wood; its odour repelled ants, moths and other harmful insects, as does the oil from the Atlas cedar.
Traditionally, the oil was used in the East for bronchial and urinary tract infections, as a preservative and as an incense. It is still used as a temple incense by the Tibetans, and is employed in their traditional medicine.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiputrescent, antiseborrheic, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, mucolytic, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory), tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the wood, stumps and sawdust. A resinoid and absolute are also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, orange or deep amber viscous oil with a warm, camphoraceous top note and sweet tenacious, woody-balsamic undertone. It blends well with rosewood, bergamot, boronia, cypress, calamus, cassie, costus, jasmine, juniper, neroli, mimosa, labdanum, olibanum, clary sage, vetiver, rosemary, ylang ylang, oriental and floral bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Atlantone, caryophyllene, cedrol, cadinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Best avoided during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, greasy skin, hair loss, skin eruptions, ulcers.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, coughs.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, pruritis.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Fragrance component and fixative in cosmetics and household products, soaps, detergents, etc, as well as in perfumes, especially men’s fragrances.... cedarwood, atlas
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: T. glandulifera, tagette, taget, marigold, Mexican marigold, wrongly called ‘calendula’ (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly scented annual herb about 30 cms high with bright orange, daisylike flowers and soft green oval leaves.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America and Mexico. Now grows wild in Africa, Europe, Asia and North America. The oil is mainly produced in South Africa, France, Argentina and Egypt, the absolute in Nigeria and France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other types of tagetes which share similar characteristics and are used to produce essential oils, notably the French marigold (T. patula) and the African or Aztec marigold (T. erecta) – see also Botanical Classification section.
NB: Not to be confused with the ‘true’ marigold (Calendula officinalis) which has very different properties and constituents, and is used extensively in herbal medicine (and occasionally to make an absolute). See entry on marigold.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In India the locally grown flowering tops of the French marigold are distilled into a receiver which contains a solvent, often sandalwood oil, to produce ‘attar genda’ – a popular Indian perfume material. In China the flowers of the African marigold are used for whooping cough, colds, colic, mumps, sore eyes and mastitis – usually as a decoction.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering herb. 2. An absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction from the fresh flowering herb.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A dark orange or yellow mobile liquid which slowly solidifies on exposure to air and light, with a bitter-green, herby odour. 2. An orange, olive or brown semi-liquid mass with an intense, sweet, greenfruity odour. It blends well with clary sage, lavender, jasmine, bergamot and other citrus oils in very small percentages.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly tagetones, with ocimene, myrcene, linalol, limonene, pinenes, carvone, citral, camphene, valeric acid and salicylaldehyde, among others.
SAFETY DATA: ‘It is quite possible that “tagetone” (the main constituent) is harmful to the human organism.’. Some reported cases of dermatitis with the tagetes species. Use with care, in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Bunions, calluses, corns, fungal infections.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical products. The absolute and oil are employed to a limited extent in herbaceous and floral perfumes. Used for flavouring tobacco and in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... tagetes
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria, Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomile blue (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual, strongly aromatic herb, up to 60 cms tall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves and simple daisy-like white flowers on single stems. In appearance it is very similar to the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from it because the latter is scentless.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized in North America and Australia. It is cultivated extensively, especially in Hungary and eastern Europe, where the oil is produced. It is no longer grown in Germany, despite the herbal name.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of chamomile, such as the pineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C. nobile), both of which are used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has a long-standing medicinal tradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceral symptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous bowel, tension headaches, and sleeplessness; especially useful for all children’s conditions, calming without depressing …’.
An excellent skin care remedy, it has many of the same qualities as Roman chamomile, except that its anti-inflammatory properties are greater due to the higher percentage of azulene.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant of leucocyte production, stomachic, sudorific, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flower heads (up to 1.9 per cent yield). An absolute is also produced in small quantities, which is a deeper blue colour and has greater tenacity and fixative properties.
CHARACTERISTICS: An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetish warm-herbaceous odour. It blends well with geranium, lavender, patchouli, rose, benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sage and labdanum.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Chamazulene, farnesene, bisabolol oxide, en-yndicycloether, among others. (NB The chamazulene is not present in the fresh flower but is only produced during the process of distillation.)
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; causes dermatitis in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache, eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teething pain, toothache, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprains.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, indigestion, nausea.
Genito-Urinary System: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.
Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... chamomile, german
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Eugenia aromatica, E. caryophyllata, E. caryophyllus.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender evergreen tree with a smooth grey trunk, up to 12 metres high. It has large bright green leaves standing in pairs on short stalks. At the start of the rainy season long buds appear with a rosy pink corolla at the tip; as the corolla fades the calyx slowly turns deep red. These are beaten from the tree and, when dried provide the cloves of commerce.
DISTRIBUTION: Believed to be native to Indonesia; now cultivated worldwide, especially in the Philippines, the Molucca Islands and Madagascar. The main oil-producing countries are Madagascar, and Indonesia.
OTHER SPECIES: The clove tree has been cultivated in plantations for over 2000 years. The original wild trees found in the Moluccas, produce an essential oil that contains no eugenol at all.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as a domestic spice worldwide. Tincture of cloves has been used for skin infections (scabies, athlete’s foot); for digestive upsets; to dress the umbilical cord; for intestinal parasites; to ease the pain of childbirth (steeped in wine); and notably for toothache. The tea is used to relieve nausea.
In Chinese medicine the oil is used for diarrhoea, hernia, bad breath and bronchitis as well as for those conditions mentioned above. In Indonesia, the ‘Kretak’ cigarette is popular, made from two parts tobacco and one part cloves.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antibiotic, antiemetic, antihistaminic, antirheumatic, antineuralgic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, carminative, counter-irritant, expectorant, larvicidal, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water distillation from the 1. buds and 2. leaves, and by steam distillation from the 3. stalks or stems. A concrete, absolute and oleoresin are also produced from the buds in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Clove bud is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy odour and a fruity-fresh top note. The bud oil is favoured in perfumery work. It blends well with rose, lavender, vanillin, clary sage, bergamot, bay leaf, lavandin, allspice, ylang ylang and cananga. 2. Clove leaf is a dark brown oil with a crude, burnt-woody odour. 3. Clove stem oil is a pale yellow liquid with a strong spicy-woody odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Bud: 60-90 per cent eugenol, eugenyl acetate, caryophyllene and other minor constituents. 2. Leaf: 82–88 per cent eugenol with little or no eugenyl acetate, and other minor constituents. 3. Stem: 90–95 per cent eugenol, with other minor constituents.
SAFETY DATA: All clove oils can cause skin and mucous membrane irritation; clove bud and stem oil may cause dermatitis in some individuals. Clove bud is the least toxic of the three oils due to the lower eugenol percentage. Use in moderation only in low dilution (less than 1 per cent).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Only use clove bud oil, not the leaf or stem oil.
Skin Care: Acne, athlete’s foot, bruises, burns, cuts, insect repellent (mosquito), toothache, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Colic, dyspepsia, nausea.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, minor infections.
OTHER USES: Used in dental preparations, and as a fragrance component in toothpastes, soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient in major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks. Used in the production of printing ink, glue and varnish; clove leaf oil is used as the starting material for the isolation of eugenol.... clove
FAMILY: Rosaceae
SYNONYMS: Rose maroc, French rose, Provence rose, hundred-leaved rose, Moroccan otto of rose (oil), French otto of rose (oil), rose de mai (absolute or concrete).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The rose which is generally used for oil production is strictly a hybrid between R. centifolia, a pink rose, and R. gallica, a dark red rose. This variety, known as rose de mai, grows to a height of 2.5 metres and produces an abundance of flowers with large pink or rosy-purple petals. There are two subspecies – one is more spiny than the other.
DISTRIBUTION: The birthplace of the cultivated rose is believed to be ancient Persia; now cultivated mainly in Morocco, Tunisia, Italy, France, Yugoslavia and China. The concrete, absolute and oil are mainly produced in Morocco; the absolute in France, Italy and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 10,000 types of cultivated rose! There are several subspecies of R. centifolia, depending on the country of origin. Other therapeutic species are the red rose or apothecary rose (R. gallica) of traditional Western medicine, the oriental or tea rose (R. indica), the Chinese or Japanese rose (R. rugosa) and the Turkish or Bulgarian rose (R. damascena) which is also extensively cultivated for its oil. Recently rosehip seed oil from R. rubiginosa has been found to be a very effective skin treatment; it promotes tissue regeneration and is good for scars, burns and wrinkles. The wild rose (Eubatus rubus) is now also being used to produce a rare absolute with a rich, spicy-earthy fragrance. See also entry on damask rose and the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The healing virtues of the rose have been known since antiquity and although roses are rarely used in herbal practice nowadays, up to the Middle Ages they played an essential part in the materia medica, and still
fulfil an important role in Eastern medicine. They were used for a wide range of disorders, including digestive and menstrual problems, headaches and nervous tension, liver congestion, poor circulation, fever (plague), eye infections and skin complaints. ‘The symbolism connected with the rose is perhaps one of the richest and most complex associated with any plant ... traditionally associated with Venus, the Goddess of love and beauty, and in our materialistic age the Goddess is certainly alive and well in the cosmetics industry for rose oil (mainly synthetic) is found as a component in 46% of men’s perfumes and 98% of women’s fragrances.’.
The French or Moroccan rose possesses narcotic properties and has the reputation for being aphrodisiac (more so than the Bulgarian type), possibly due to the high percentage of phenyl ethanol in the former. For further distinctions between the different properties of rose types, see damask rose.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, anti-tubercular agent, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, choleretic, cicitrisant, depurative, emmenagogue, haemostatic, hepatic, laxative, regulator of appetite, sedative (nervous), stomachic, tonic (heart, liver, stomach, uterus).
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil or otto by water or steam distillation from the fresh petals. (Rose water is produced as a byproduct of this process.) 2. Concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh petals. (A rose leaf absolute is also produced in small quantities in France.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a pale yellow liquid with a deep, sweet, rosy-floral, tenacious odour. 2. The absolute is a reddish orange viscous liquid with a deep, rich, sweet, rosy-spicy, honeylike fragrance. It blends well with jasmine, cassie, mimosa, neroli, geranium, bergamot, lavender, clary sage, sandalwood, guaiacwood, patchouli, benzoin, chamomile, Peru balsam, clove and palmarosa.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: It has over 300 constituents, some in minute traces. Mainly citronellol (18–22 per cent), phenyl ethanol (63 per cent), geraniol and nerol (10–15 per cent), stearopten (8 per cent), farnesol (0.2–2 per cent), among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Broken capillaries, conjunctivitis (rose water), dry skin, eczema, herpes, mature and sensitive complexions, wrinkles.
Circulation muscles and joints: Palpitations, poor circulation.
Respiratory system: Asthma, coughs, hay fever.
Digestive system: Cholecystitis, liver congestion, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Irregular menstruation, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, uterine disorders.
Nervous system: Depression, impotence, insomnia, frigidity, headache, nervous tension and stress-related complaints – ‘But the rose procures us one thing above all: a feeling of well being, even of happiness, and the individual under its influence will develop an amiable tolerance.’.
OTHER USES: Rose water is used as a household cosmetic and culinary article (especially in Persian cookery). The concrete, absolute and oil are employed extensively in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes of all types – floral, oriental, chypres, etc. Some flavouring uses, especially fruit products and tobacco.... rose, cabbage
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