Pro Health Dictionary

An estimate of the outcome of a disease. Poor prognosis indicates that outcome is liable to be fatal.... prognosis

Pertaining to the prevention of the development of a disease... prophylactic

Inflammation of the prostate. The causes may be varied, ranging from infection to portal congestion to cancer to increased adipose estradiol release in the middle-aged male...to over-use.... prostatitis

The presence of protein in the urine, sometimes a symptom of kidney compromise. See ALBUMINURIA... proteinuria

The lowest division of the animal kingdom, including unicellular or acellular organisms with a eukaryotic structure.... protozoa

The area of the body that is closest to the heart.... proximal

Any combination of health education and related organizational, political and economic interventions designed to facilitate behavioural and environmental adaptations that will improve or protect health.... health promotion

A benzoic-acid derivative which interferes with the excretion by the KIDNEYS of certain compounds, including PENICILLIN and PARA-AMINO SALICYLIC ACID. Probenecid and was originally introduced into medicine for this reason, as a means of increasing and maintaining the concentration of penicillin in the body; it is also used to treat chronic GOUT.... probenecid

An antineoplastic drug used mainly to treat Hodgkin’s disease (see under LYMPHOMA). It acts by interfering with the process of MITOSIS, the method by which the cells of the body, including tumours, reproduce themselves.... procarbazine

Prochlorperazine is an antipsychotic phenothiazine drug (see NEUROLEPTICS). It is also an e?ective drug for the prevention or treatment of vomiting, and has therefore been used in the treatment of MENIÈRE’S DISEASE.... prochlorperazine

Another term for PROLAPSE.... procidentia

Pain in the rectum... proctalgia

In?ammation situated about the RECTUM or ANUS.... proctitis

A premonitory symptom or precursor; a symptom indicating the onset of a disease.... prodrome

Premature old age (see also AGEING).... progeria

This is the hormone secreted after ovulation by the corpus luteum. It is a steroid (a cholesterol with a funny hat), enters receptive cells to stimulate their growth, and acts as an anabolic agent. Estrogen should be viewed as the primary coat underneath all the cycles during a woman’s reproductive years, with progesterone, its antagonist, surging for ten or twelve days in ovulatory months. Most of the actions of progesterone cannot occur without estrogen having previously induced the growth of progesterone-receptive binding sites. In the estrus cycle, estrogen stimulates the thickening of membranes (the proliferative phase), and progesterone stimulates their sophistication into organized and secreting mucosa (the secretory phase). The new secretions contain anticoagulants, antimicrobials, and rich mucus fluids. If there is pregnancy, the uterine membranes are fully structured for the long haul; if menses occurs, the thickened tissues can erode away without clotting, becoming infected, or flowing poorly. If there is not enough estrogen, the corpus luteum will not mature. If the corpus luteum is weak, menses becomes disorganized, clotty, and painful. It is also the first part of the cycle to become disorganized in early menopause, since the available ovarian proto-follicles have been reduced over the years to only a few. In earlier years, dozens of potential follicles may attempt maturity each month, with only the strongest one able to reach dominance, form a corpus luteum and an ovum...the rest disintegrating. In a manner of speaking, the better the follicle, the better the corpus luteum and (presumably) the sounder the ovum. Since the number of potential follicles is fixed at birth, by early menopause those that still remain contain a high number of hormone-resistant and unsound protofollicles, resulting in more and more cycles having less predictable estrogen and especially progesterone levels.... progesterone

Abnormal protusion of the lower JAW, or sometimes of both jaws. The condition may make biting and chewing di?cult, in which case corrective surgery is necessary.... prognathism

A biguanide antimalarial used alone or in combination for the prevention of malaria.... proguanil

Prolactin is the pituitary hormone (see PITUITARY GLAND) which initiates lactation. The development of the breasts during pregnancy is ascribed to the action of OESTROGENS; prolactin starts them secreting. If lactation does not occur or fails, it may be started by injection of prolactin.

The secretion of prolactin is normally kept under tonic inhibition by the secretion of DOPAMINE which inhibits prolactin. This is formed in the HYPOTHALAMUS and secreted into the portal capillaries of the pituitary stalk to reach the anterior pituitary cells. Drugs that deplete the brain stores of dopamine or antagonise dopamine at receptor level will cause HYPERPROLACTINAEMIA and hence the secretion of milk from the breast and AMENORRHOEA. METHYLDOPA and RESERPINE deplete brain stores of dopamine and the PHENOTHIAZINES act as dopamine antagonists at receptor level. Other causes of excess secretion of prolactin are pituitary tumours, which may be minute and are then called microadenomas, or may actually enlarge the pituitary fossa and are then called macroadenomas. The most common cause of hyperprolactinaemia is a pituitary tumour. The patient may present with infertility – because patients with hyperprolactinaemia do not ovulate – or with amenorrhea and even GALACTORRHOEA.

BROMOCRIPTINE is a dopamine agonist. Treatment with bromocriptine will therefore control hyperprolactinaemia, restoring normal menstruation and ovulation and suppressing galactorrhoea. If the cause of hyperprolactinaemia is an adenomatous growth in the pituitary gland, surgical treatment should be considered.... prolactin

Displacement of an organ or structure from its normal position. The term is applied chie?y to downward displacements of the RECTUM and UTERUS.... prolapse

A phenothiazine drug used to tranquillise disturbed patients (see NEUROLEPTICS).... promazine

The movement whereby the bones of the forearm are crossed and the palm of the hand faces downwards.... pronation

A condition in which the EYE protrudes from the orbit. Some causes include thyroid disorders (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), tumours within the orbit, in?ammation or infection of the orbit. Proptosis due to endocrine abnormality (e.g. thyroid problems) is known as EXOPHTHALMOS.... proptosis

An oral antithyroid drug given daily to a person with HYPERTHYROIDISM. It interferes with the body’s production of thyroid hormones.... propylthiouracil

See “cohort study”.... prospective study

A group of a dozen or more fatty acid derivatives made by many tissues for paracrine (local) hormone use. Because they are only meant for local use, the same compound may serve opposite purposes in different tissues...inhibiting inflammation in the stomach lining while increasing uterine irritability.... prostaglandin

This is an accessory sex gland in males which is wrapped round the URETHRA as this tube leaves the URINARY BLADDER. Opening into the urethra, the gland secretes an alkaline ?uid during ejaculation and is a constituent of SEMEN. The gland grows during adolescence and is sensitive to the concentrations of sex hormones.... prostate gland

An operation to remove part or all of the PROSTATE GLAND. The most common method is transurethral prostatectomy (TURP) carried out during cytoscopy. A very enlarged prostate may need to be removed by a retropubic prostatectomy. After several weeks, most patients are able to resume normal activity including sexual intercourse.... prostatectomy

An arti?cial replacement of a missing or malfunctioning body part. Examples include false legs or arms ?tted after AMPUTATION (see below); arti?cial heart valves; arti?cial heart devices; COCHLEAR IMPLANTS to improve hearing; a bio-arti?cial PANCREAS (containing live pancreatic cells from pigs) now under development to treat DIABETES MELLITUS; arti?cial bone; and (under development) arti?cal lungs. Cosmetic prostheses such as arti?cal eyes, teeth, noses and breasts are in widespread use.

Development of such mechanical and biomechanical devices points the way to a much wider use of e?ective prostheses, enabling people who would previously have died or been severely handicapped to lead normal or near normal lives. The technical hazards that have already been overcome provide a sound foundation for future successes. Progress so far in producing prostheses should also ensure that organ replacement is free from the serious ethical problems that surround the use of genetic manipulation to cure or prevent serious diseases (see ETHICS).

Limbs These are best made to meet the individual’s requirements but can be obtained ‘o? the shelf’. Arti?cial joints normally comprise complex mechanisms to stimulate ?exion and rotation movements. Leg prostheses are generally more useful than those for arms, because leg movements are easier to duplicate than those of the arm. Modern electronic circuitry that enables nerve impulses to be picked up and converted into appropriate movements is greatly improving the e?ectiveness of limb prostheses.

Eyes Arti?cial eyes are worn both for appearance and for psychological reasons. They are made of glass or plastic, and are thin shells of a boat-shape, representing the front half of the eye which has been removed. The stump which is left has still the eye-muscles in it, and so the arti?cial eye still has the power of moving with the other. A glass eye has to be replaced by a new one every year. Plastic eyes have the advantage of being more comfortable to wear, being more durable, and being unbreakable. Research is taking place aimed at creating a silicon chip that stimulates the visual cortex and thus helps to restore sight to the blind.

Dental prostheses is any arti?cial replacement of a tooth. There are three main types: a crown, a bridge and a denture. A crown is the replacement of the part of a tooth which sticks through the gum. It is ?xed to the remaining part of the tooth and may be made of metal, porcelain, plastic or a combination of these. A bridge is the replacement of two or three missing teeth and is usually ?xed in place. The replacement teeth are held in position by being joined to one or more crowns on the adjacent teeth. A denture is a removable prosthesis used to replace some or all the teeth. The teeth are made of plastic or porcelain and the base may be of plastic or metal. Removable teeth may be held more ?rmly by means of implants.

Heart The surgical replacement of stenosed or malfunctioning heart-valves with metal or plastic, human or pig valves has been routinely carried out for many years. So too has been the insertion into patients with abnormal heart rhythms of battery-driven arti?cial pacemakers (see CARDIAC PACEMAKER) to restore normal function. The replacement of a faulty heart with an arti?cial one is altogether more challenging. The ?rst working attempt to create an arti?cial heart took place in the early 1980s. Called the Jarvik-7, it had serious drawbacks: patients had to be permanently connected to apparatus the size of an anaesthetic trolley; and it caused deaths from infection and clotting of the blood. As a result, arti?cial hearts have been used primarily as bridging devices to keep patients alive until a suitable donor heart for transplantation can be found. Recent work in North America, however, is developing arti?cial hearts made of titanium and dacron. One type is planted into the chest cavity next to the patient’s own heart to assist it in its vital function of pumping blood around the body. Another replaces the heart completely. Eventually, it is probable that arti?cial hearts will replace heart transplants as the treatment of choice in patients with serious heart disorders.

Liver Arti?cial livers work in a similar way to kidney dialysis machines (see DIALYSIS). Blood is removed from the body and passed through a machine where it is cleaned and treated and then returned to the patient. The core of the device comprises several thousand ?exible membrane tubules on which live liver cells (from pigs or people) have been cultured. There is an exchange of biological molecules and water with the ‘circulating’ blood, and the membrane also screens the ‘foreign’ cells from the patient’s immune system, thus preventing any antagonistic immune reaction in the recipient.

Nose The making of a new nose is the oldest known operation in plastic surgery, Hindu records of such operations dating back to 1,000 BC. Loss of a nose may be due to eroding disease, war wounds, gun-shot wounds or dog bites. In essence the operation is the same as that practised a thousand years before Christ: namely the use of a skin graft, brought down from the forehead. Alternative sources of the skin graft today are skin from the arm, chest or abdomen. As a means of support, the new nose is built round a graft of bone or of cartilage from the ear.... prosthesis

Molecular constituent of all cells comprising amino acid building blocks.... protein

The viscid, translucent, glue-like material containing ?ne granules and composed mainly of proteins, which makes up the essential material of plant and animal cells and has the properties of life.... protoplasm

The large process of the temporal bone of the SKULL which can be felt immediately behind the ear. It contains numerous cavities, one of which – the mastoid antrum – communicates with the middle ear, and is liable to suppurate when the middle ear is diseased. (See under EAR, DISEASES OF.)... mastoid process

The large process on the ulnar bone that projects behind the joint of the elbow.... olecranon process

A slender, ?exible instrument, usually made of metal, designed for introduction into a wound or cavity – to explore its depth and direction, to discover the presence of foreign bodies, or to introduce medicinal substances.... probe

Viable BACTERIA that colonise the intestine and alter the micro?ora and their metabolic activities, with a presumed bene?cial e?ect for the host. Many probiotics are LACTIC ACID bacteria

– for example, LACTOBACILLUS or bi?dobacterium. Not all probiotics have the same properties or e?ectiveness. To be e?ective, a probiotic must survive passage through the stomach – an acid environment – and successfully colonise in the intestines, even when antibiotics are present. Research suggests that probiotics ameliorate the symptoms of childhood and travellers’ DIARRHOEA, reducing the period of acute symptoms – particularly if the infection is caused by one of the ROTAVIRUSES.... probiotics

Once used widely as a local anaesthetic, but rarely so now.... procaine

A continuous and regular action or succession of actions taking place or being carried out in a definite manner and leading to the accomplishment of some results.... process

One of a naturally occurring or synthetically produced group of steroid HORMONES, including PROGESTERONE, that help to maintain normal pregnancy. Progestogens are used in contraceptives (see CONTRACEPTION) and are useful in treating AMENORRHOEA, premenstrual tension, and abnormal uterine bleeding.... progestogen

The SPINAL COLUMN is built up of a series of bones, known as vertebrae, placed one upon the other. Between these vertebrae lies a series of thick discs of ?bro-cartilage known as intervertebral discs. Each disc consists of an outer portion known as the anulus ?brosus, and an inner core known as the nucleus pulposus. The function of these discs is to give ?exibility and resiliency to the spinal column and to act as bu?ers against undue jarring. In other words, they are most e?cient shock-absorbers. They may, however, PROLAPSE, or protrude, between the two adjacent vertebrae. If this should happen they press on the neighbouring spinal nerve and cause pain. As the most common sites of protrusion are between the last two lumbar vertebrae and between the last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum, this means that the pain occurs in the back, causing LUMBAGO, or down the course of the sciatic nerve causing SCIATICA. The prolapse is most likely to occur in middle age, which suggests that it may be associated with degeneration of the disc involved, but it can occur in early adult life as well. It usually occurs when the individual is performing some form of exercise which involves bending or twisting, as in gardening. The onset of pain may be acute and sudden, or gradual and more chronic in intensity. (See also INTERVERTEBRAL DISC.)

Treatment varies, depending (amongst other things) on the severity of the condition. In the acute phase, rest in bed is advisable, along with ANALGESICS. Later, exercise and physiotherapy are helpful, and in some cases manipulation of the spine brings relief by allowing the herniated, or prolapsed, disc to slip back into position. The injection of a local anaesthetic into the spine (epidural ANAESTHESIA) is yet another measure that often helps the more chronic cases. If those measures fail, surgery to remove the prolapsed disc may be necessary, but the patient’s condition should be carefully reviewed before surgery is considered since success is not certain. An alternative form of treatment is the injection into the disc of chymopapain, an ENZYME obtained from the paw-paw, which dissolves the disc.... prolapsed intervertebral disc

Lying with the face down, or positioning the arm and hand so that the palm faces downwards.... prone

Treatment or action adopted with the view of warding o? disease.... prophylaxis

A drug used intravenously to induce general ANAESTHESIA. Propofol may be used by intravenous infusion to maintain anaesthesia; it is also useful for sedating patients in intensive care.... propofol

The trade name of a drug registered by the pharmaceutical company which has developed and patented it. This protects the name, ingredients and manufacturing technique for a set period of time, and helps the company to recoup the often costly research and development needed to produce and test the drug. Doctors may prescribe a drug by its trade name or by its o?cial, approved name, although the NHS encourages the latter. (See GENERIC DRUG; PATENT.)... proprietary name

See EXOPHTHALMOMETER.... proptometer

A prostaglandin (see PROSTAGLANDINS) produced by the endothelial lining of the blood vessels. It inhibits the aggregation of PLATELETS, and thereby reduces the likelihood of the blood clotting. It is also a strong vasodilator (see VASODILATORS).... prostacyclin

The condition induced by benign enlargement of the PROSTATE GLAND.... prostatism

A digestive ENZYME – also known as a proteolytic enzyme – that breaks down PROTEIN in food as part of the digestive process. The complex protein molecules are reduced to their constituent AMINO ACIDS.... protease

The mechanism by which complex PROTEIN molecules are broken down by digestive enzymes (see PROTEASE) in the stomach and small intestine. The constituent AMINO ACIDS are then absorbed into the bloodstream.... proteolysis

An inactive substance in the blood PLASMA that is the precursor of the ENZYME, thrombin, which clots the blood. The conversion occurs when a blood vessel is damaged and the process of blood COAGULATION occurs.... prothrombin

A gene in a cell that regulates cell growth and development in an orderly fashion. If a protooncogene mutates, it can give rise to cancer by causing growth without the normal controls. The proto-oncogene is then called an oncogene.... proto-oncogene

A key enzyme system in the parietal cells of the mucosal lining of the stomach: hydrogen ions are produced which acidify the stomach’s secretions and convert pepsinogen to PEPSIN, an active participant in the digestion of food.... proton pump

These are drugs that inhibit the production of acid in the stomach by blocking a key enzyme system, known as the PROTON PUMP, of the parietal cells of the stomach. The drugs include omeprazole, lansoprazole and pantoprazole, and they are the treatment of choice for oesophagitis (erosion and stricture – see under OESOPHAGUS, DISEASES OF); for the short-term treatment for gastric ulcer (see under STOMACH, DISEASES OF) and DUODENAL ULCER; and, in combination with ANTIBIOTICS, for the eradication of Helicobacter pylori.... proton-pump inhibitors

One of the tricyclic ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS. (See MENTAL ILLNESS.)... protriptyline

See FLUOXETINE.... prozac

Disposable sanitary towels or tampons (see TAMPON) used to protect clothing from bloodstains during MENSTRUATION. They are available in different absorbencies to meet women’s individual needs.... sanitary protection

Also known as the xiphisternum or xiphoid cartilage, this is the small oval-shaped projection forming the lowest of the three parts of the STERNUM or breastbone.... xiphoid process

(BPH) A medical term for enlargement of the prostate gland (see prostate, enlarged).... benign prostatic hyperplasia

A protein produced in the body in response to inflammation.... c-reactive protein

An anticholinergic drug used to treat Parkinson’s disease and minimize the side effects of some antipsychotic drugs. Possible adverse effects include dry mouth and blurred vision.... procyclidine

A noncancerous tumour of the pituitary gland that causes overproduction of prolactin. In women, this may result in galactorrhoea, amenorrhoea, or infertility. In men, it may cause impotence and gynaecomastia. In either sex, it may cause headaches, diabetes insipidus, and, if the tumour presses on the optic nerves, loss of the outer visual field. Diagnosis is made from blood tests and CT scanning or MRI of the brain. Treatment may involve removal of the tumour, radiotherapy, or giving the drug bromocriptine.... prolactinoma

An antihistamine drug used to relieve itching in a variety of skin conditions, such as eczema.

It is also used as an antiemetic drug, and sometimes as a premedication.

Possible adverse effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, and drowsiness.... promethazine

An antispasmodic drug used to treat irritable bowel syndrome and forms of urinary incontinence.

Possible adverse effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, and retention of urine.... propantheline

A beta-blocker drug used to treat hypertension, angina pectoris, and cardiac arrhythmias.

It may also be used to reduce the risk of further heart damage after myocardial infarction.

It relieves symptoms of hyperthyroidism and anxiety, and can prevent migraine attacks.

Possible adverse effects are typical of other beta-blocker drugs.... propranolol

Benth.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: All over India.

Ayurvedic: Shveta Shirisha (bark- white or greenish-white).

Action: Bark—a decoction is given in rheumatism and haemorrhage.

The bark contains beta-sitosterol and yields 12-17% tannins.

An oleanolic acid saponin, proceric acid saponin mixture from seeds and root saponin exhibit spermicidal activity.... albizia procera

A protein produced in the gut and liver of the FETUS. Abnormality in the fetus, such as neural tube defect, may result in raised levels of alphafeto protein in the maternal blood. In DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME, levels may be abnormally low. In either case, screening of the pregnancy should be carried out, including AMNIOCENTESIS to check the amount of alpha-feto protein in the amniotic ?uid. The protein may also be produced in some abnormal tissues in the adult – in patients with liver cancer, for example.... alpha-feto protein

A process that allows a person who has been assessed to dispute the assessment, and which provides for the assessment to be changed.... assessment appeal process

Basil tea is an Ayurvedic natural remedy used to treat a wide variety of diseases such as asthma, diabetes and high cholesterol. Hindus worship the plant for its religious significance as well. Basil Tea description Basil, a plant from the mint family, is original from India and Asia. It is an aromatic herb with a strong fragrance being largely used in spaghetti sauces, stews and tomato recipes. Basil is a source of vitamins and other nutrients.  Studies showed that this herb has anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory health properties, fighting against intestinal problems, headaches and ulcers, as well. In aromatherapy, basil is used to alleviate mental fatigue. Basil tea is the resulting beverage from brewing the abovementioned plant. Basil Tea brewing To prepare Basil tea:

• bring the water and the basil leaves to boil (in a small tea pan)
• lower the heat and allow it to brew for 3-4 minutes
• add the tea leaves or tea bags and sugar according to taste
• bring to boil
• turn off the heat
• strain it into cups and add milk according to taste

Basil Tea benefits Studies claimed that Basil Tea is successesfully used to:

• treat intestinal colics, gastric ulcers and bloating/swelling of the abdomen
• treat anorexia
• fight urinary tract infections
• help against diarrhea
• help fight insomnia
• help treat lesions and inflammations in the mouth
• enhance the body’s ability to resist stress
• help to relieve pain

Basil Tea side effects Basil tea side effects are generally associated to large intakes. There have been thus noticed:shallow breathing, blood in the urine or sputum, mouth and throat burns, nausea, racing heartbeat, seizures, dizziness and coma. Pregnant or breastfeeding women, as well as women trying to become pregnant should not use Basil tea. Basil tea has anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial properties, proving itself to be an important adjuvant in treating arthritis, fevers and other ailments. It is also constantly used to add savor to several dishes.... basil tea has anti-inflammatory properties

(BPH) The benign buildup in the prostate of “warts” or epithelial neoplasias that can block or interrupt urination, and which are usually concurrent with moderate prostate enlargement. They cause a dull ache on urination, ejaculation, and/or defecation. The diagnosis is medical, since the same subjective conditions can result from cancer of the prostate. BPH is common in men over fifty and can be the result either of diminished production of complete testosterone or poor pelvic circulation. Alcohol, coffee, speed, and antihistamines can all aggravate the problem.... benign prostatic hypertrophy, or hyperplasia

A documented arrangement of integrated care, based on the analysed needs of a specific group of people, from intake to supply of care and services, as well as the intended outcomes, and including a description of the way the arrangement should be applied in order to match the needs of individual persons.... care programme

The blend of health and social services provided to an individual or family in his/her place of residence for the purpose of promoting, maintaining or restoring health or minimizing the effects of illness and disability. These services are usually designed to help older people remain independent and in their own homes. They can include senior centres, transportation, delivered meals or congregate meals sites, visiting nurses or home health aides, adult day care and homemaker services.... community-based care / community-based services / programmes

Delivery of meals and socialization activities to older adults in a designated location.... congregate meals programme

A managerial process dealing directly with the selection of priority health problems, specification of operational objectives and translation of these into activities, resource needs and organization.... country health programming

A finished dosage form, for eg., a tablet, capsule or solution that contains a drug substance... drug product

Organization or company in which profits are distributed to shareholders or private owners.... for profit

An organized series of activities directed towards the attainment of defined health objectives and targets.... health programme

(Ait.) R.Br.

Family: Asclepiadaceae.

Habitat: An evergreen shrub distributed in West and Central India.

English: Swallow-Wart, Milk Weed, (purple-flowered), King's Crown.

Ayurvedic: Alarka, Surya, Su- uryaahvya, Vikirna, Vasuka, Tapana, Tuulaphala, Kshirparna, Arkaparna, Aasphota.

Unani: Aakh, Madaar, Ashar.

Siddha/Tamil: Vellerukku, Erukku.

Action: The plant is used against bronchial asthma (especially flowers with black pepper). Leaves—used for treating chronic cases of dyspepsia, flatulence, constipation and mucus in stool. Seed oil— geriatric and tonic. Leaves, flowers and root-bark oil—antimicrobial (maximum activity in leaves). The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the root and leaf in asthma and dyspnoea; stem bark in diseases of the spleen.

Root bark contains benzoylline- olone and benzolisolineolone. Root, stem and leaves, also latex contain beta-amyrin. Flowers contain evanidin 3-rhamnoglucoside. The plant contains a cardenolide, proceragenin, an antibacterial principle.

The latex is given for treating epilepsy, also in painful, joints and swellings. The latex exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-and formalin- induced rat paw oedema model.

The herb can alter menstrual cycle and temporarily inhibit ovulation. Cardiac glycosides may be additive when combined with Digoxin. (Sharon M. Herr.)

Dosage: Leaf—250-750 mg powder; root—1-3 g for decoction (API Vol. I); stem bark—0.5-1 g powder (API Vol. III). Milky juice—500 mg to 1 g (CCRAS.)

Action: Anti-inflammatory. Root— hypocholesterolaemic. Poisonous to human beings in mature stages.

The flowers contain flavonoids, 7- rhamnosides, 3-glucosides and 3-glu- co-7-rhamnosides of kaempferol and quercetin. Roots gave triterpenoid glycosides, which decreased serum cholesterol and total protein and increased blood sugar equivalent to bu- tadione in rats.

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibits CNS depressant and hypotensive activity in rat.... calotropis procera

Chaga tea is a medicinal beverage with anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. It is also an adjuvant in the liver treatment. Chaga Tea description Chaga is an irregularly-shaped polypore fungus (a mushroom), mainly found on the wounds of birch trees, on elm trees, alder trees and ironwood trees. This mushroom has a brown color, its veins being white or cream. It is acknowledged to hold less water than other types of mushrooms. In North Europe and Russia, the chaga mushroom has been used for a long period of time as a popular medicine remedy. Scientists have demonstrated that chaga has anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and immune-stimulating actions. It could also be used to relieve pain. Changa tea is the resulting beverage from brewing the abovementioned mushroom. Chaga Tea brewing Chaga tea is prepared in the following way:

• shred the Chaga mushrooms
• soften the pieces in cold water for about five hours
• get the softened mushrooms out
• save the liquid
• add heated water to the softened mushrooms
• let the mixture stand for about 2 days
• mix the resultant Chaga tea with the saved liquid from the softening process
• drink it slowly

Chaga tea may be consumed three times a day. Chaga Tea benefits Chaga tea has been successfully used to:

• boost and strengthen the immune system
• help in the treatment of various stomach diseases
• help in expelling intestinal worms
• help in the treatment of liver problems
• help in the treatment of certain heart ailments, including hypertension
• help in fighting tumors and lowering the risk of certain cancers (like breast, liver, uterus and stomach cancers)
• help in the treatment of diabetes
• act against HIV
• treat inflammations

Chaga Tea side effects Before drinking Chaga tea, consult a health care provider. Chaga tea is a natural beverage used as a treatment for diabetes, several heart ailments as well as for inflammations.... chaga tea has anti-cancer properties

An assessment of the extent to which health promotion actions achieve a “valued” outcome.... health promotion evaluation

Assessment of changes to personal characteristics and skills, and/or social norms and actions, and/or organizational practices and public policies which are attributable to a health promotion activity.... health promotion outcome

A hospital which, not only provides high quality comprehensive medical and nursing services, but also develops a corporate identity that embraces the aims of health promotion; develops a health-promoting organizational structure and culture, including active, participatory roles for patients and all members of staff; develops itself into a health-promoting physical environment; and actively cooperates with its community.... health-promoting hospital

See “community-based care”.... home and community-based services; home and community care programme

See “care plan”.... individual programme plan

A classification of diseases, conditions and other reasons for attendance for primary care. This classification is an adaptation of the ICD but makes allowance for the diagnostic uncertainty that prevails in primary care.... international classification of health problems in primary care (ichppc)

A list of diagnoses and identifying codes used by medical practitioners and other health care providers. The coding and terminology provide a uniform language that permits consistent communication on claim forms. Data from earlier time periods were coded using the appropriate revision of the ICD for that time period. Changes in classification of causes of death in successive revisions of the ICD may introduce discontinuities in cause of death statistics over time.... international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, tenth revision (icd-10)

Linn.

Synonym: C. myriocarpus Naud.

Family: Cucurbitaceae.

Habitat: Wild on wastelands of Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan; in dry districts of Bellary in the South.

English: Wild Cucumber.

Ayurvedic: Indravarruni (var.).

Folk: Khar-indraayana.

Action: Emetic, purgative. Toxic.

Fruit pulp—a bitter resinous body, myriocarpin, produces nausea and is slightly purgative.

The fruit contain cucurbitacin B,C,D and Q1, and propheterosterol and its acetate. Cucurbitacin Q1 is an anti- tumour agent. Amino acids from the fruits are leucine, iso-leucine, pheny- lalanine, valine, tryptophan, tyrosine, proline, alanine threonine, glycine, arginine, crystine and aspartic acid.... cucumis prophetarum

This legislation puts into e?ect the UK European Directive 95/46/EC on the processing of personal data, whether paper or computer records. The Act is based on eight principles, the ?rst of which stipulates that ‘personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully’. Unfortunately this phrase is open to di?erent interpretations. Clari?cation is required to determine how the common-law duty of con?dentiality affects the health services in the context of using data obtained from patients for research work, especially epidemiological studies (see EPIDEMIOLOGY). Health authorities, trusts and primary care groups in the NHS have appointed ‘Caldicott guardians’ – named after a review of information that identi?es patients. A prime responsibility of the guardians is to agree and review internal protocols for the protection and use of identi?able information obtained from patients. The uncertainties over the interpretation of the legislation require clari?cation, but some experts have suggested a workable solution: to protect patients’ rights, researchers should ensure that data are fully anonymised whenever possible; they should also agree their project design with those responsible for data protection well in advance of its planned starting date. (See ETHICS.)... data protection act 1998

Linn.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats, West Coast from Konkan to Kerala; abundant in the rainy season.

Ayurvedic: Parpata (substitute).

Action: The plant contains naphthofuranones, justicidin A, B, C, D, G and H, and diphyllin, which are used for the treatment of osteoporosis. The flowers contain peonidine glucoside. Essential oil— antifungal.... justicia procumbens

Measures taken for protection against malaria, e.g. administration of a drug and personal protective measures that prevent a person from becoming infected with the disease.... malaria prophylaxis

Emotional and behavioural problems are common in children and adolescents, affecting up to one-?fth at any one time. But these problems are often not clear-cut, and they may come and go as the child develops and meets new challenges in life. If a child or teenager has an emotional problem that persists for weeks rather than days and is associated with disturbed behaviour, he or she may have a recognisable mental health disorder.

Anxiety, phobias and depression are fairly common. For instance, surveys show that up to

2.5 per cent of children and 8 per cent of adolescents are depressed at any one time, and by the age of 18 a quarter will have been depressed at least once. Problems such as OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (HYPERACTIVITY SYNDROME), AUTISM, ASPERGER’S SYNDROME and SCHIZOPHRENIA are rare.

Mental-health problems may not be obvious at ?rst, because children often express distress through irritability, poor concentration, dif?cult behaviour, or physical symptoms. Physical symptoms of distress, such as unexplained headache and stomach ache, may persuade parents to keep children at home on school days. This may be appropriate occasionally, but regularly avoiding school can lead to a persistent phobia called school refusal.

If a parent, teacher or other person is worried that a child or teenager may have a mental-health problem, the ?rst thing to do is to ask the child gently if he or she is worried about anything. Listening, reassuring and helping the child to solve any speci?c problems may well be enough to help the child feel settled again. Serious problems such as bullying and child abuse need urgent professional involvement.

Children with emotional problems will usually feel most comfortable talking to their parents, while adolescents may prefer to talk to friends, counsellors, or other mentors. If this doesn’t work, and if the symptoms persist for weeks rather than days, it may be necessary to seek additional help through school or the family’s general practitioner. This may lead to the child and family being assessed and helped by a psychologist, or, less commonly, by a child psychiatrist. Again, listening and counselling will be the main forms of help o?ered. For outright depression, COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY and, rarely, antidepressant drugs may be used.... mental health problems in children

A National Health Service body intended to combat the increasing threat from infectious diseases and biological, chemical and radiological hazards. Covering England, the agency includes the Public Health Laboratory Service, the National Radiological Protection Board, the Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research, and the National Focus Group for Chemical Incidents.... national infection control and health protection agency

An incorporated organization from which its shareholders or trustees do not benefit financially.... non-profit / not-for-profit organization

See GENERIC DRUG; APPROVED NAMES FOR MEDICINES.... non-proprietary name

The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion of 1986 identifies three basic strategies for health promotion. These are advocacy for health to create essential conditions for health; enabling all people to achieve their full health potential; and mediating between the different interests in society in the pursuit of health. These strategies are supported by five priority action areas: build health public policy; create supportive environments for health; strengthen community action for health; develop personal skills; and reorient health services.... ottawa charter for health promotion

A set of strategies to address an individual’s pain management requirements and supportive of the individual’s pain control.... pain management programme

A voluntary agreement between two or more partners to work cooperatively towards a set of shared health outcomes.... partnership for health promotion

(Forsk.) Alschers & Schweinf.

Synonym: P. loeflingii Benth. & Hook. f.

Habitat: Throughout the warmer parts of India in fields and waste places.

Folk: Ghima, Suretaa.

Action: Leaves—an infusion of roasted leaves is given for cough following fever, particularly in measles.

Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibits spasmolytic activity. The aerial parts contain tetrahydroxy triterpenes. Presence ofa triterpenoid saponin, and hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, beta- amyrin and its acetate, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol is also reported.... polycarpon prostratum

The likelihood that an event will occur. When looking at differences between data samples, statistical techniques are used to determine if the differences are likely to reflect real differences in the whole group from which the sample is drawn, or if they are simply the result of random variation in the samples. It is the probability that a test statistic would be as extreme as, or more extreme than that observed if the null hypothesis were true. The letter P, followed by the abbreviation n.s. (not significant) or by the symbol < (less than) and a decimal notation such as 0.01, 0.05, is a statement of the probability that the difference observed could have occurred by chance, if the groups are really alike, i.e. under the null hypothesis. Although investigators may choose their own significance levels in most studies, a result whose probability value is less than 5% (P<0.05) or 1% (P<0.01) is considered sufficiently unlikely to have occurred by chance to justify the designation “statistically significant”. For example, a probability (or P value) of 1% indicates that the differences observed would have occurred by chance in one out of a hundred samples drawn from the same data.... probability (p value)

A derivative of PROCAINE, used to treat certain cardiac arrythmias (irregularities in the heartbeat).... procainamide hydrochloride

The second stage larva of pseudophyllidean tapeworms which bears six hooks near the posterior end.... procercoid

(Latin) One who guides others Prochorah, Prochoria, Prochoriah, Prochorea, Prochoreah... prochora

(Greek) In mythology, an Athenian princess... procne

The drug which begets... procreant

Prolapse of the rectum... proctoptosis

Premonitory period; indicating the approach of a disease.... prodromal period

A term applied to the earliest symptoms of a disease, or those which give warning of its presence.... prodromata

The ratio of the quantity and quality of units produced per unit of time.... productivity

Conduct in accordance with good practice as recognized and endorsed by a professional society.... professional accountability

Liability insurance to protect professionals for loss or expense resulting from claims arising from mistakes, errors or omissions committed or alleged to have been committed by the insured in his professional activities.... professional liability insurance

The enforcement of certain rules of conduct among its members by a professional community.... professional self-regulation

Review and analysis of practice profiles to identify and assess patterns of health care services.... profile analysis or profiling

Single segment of a tapeworm.... proglottid

An organized aggregate of activities directed towards the attainment of defined objectives and targets which are progressively more specific than the goals to which they contribute. See “health programme”; “care programme”.... programme

The process of making resources available to attain the objectives of programmes. Programme budgeting differs from ordinary budgeting in that the emphasis is on the results to be achieved rather than on unconnected budgetary items. The objectives and targets of the programme are defined clearly and, in order to attain them, the resources required are grouped together, those who will receive them specified, and their sources determined.... programme budgeting

The systematic assessment of the relevance, adequacy, progress, efficiency, effectiveness and impact of a programme.... programme evaluation / review

A system of management which involves the integration of planning, resourcing and evaluation processes to achieve stated outcomes.... programme management

A synthetic antimalarial drug usually used with CHLOROQUINE to prevent infection with MALARIA. Occasionally the drug is used to treat uncomplicated falciparum malaria in combination with atovaquone.... proguanil hydrochloride

A unique endeavour with a beginning and an end to be completed by one or more people within the constraints of time, budget and quality; a problem scheduled for solution.... project

A widely used antihistamine drug with a prolonged action and a pronounced sedative e?ect. (See ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS.)... promethazine hydrochloride

A drug that is widely used in the alleviation or prevention of sea-sickness (see MOTION (TRAVEL) SICKNESS).... promethazine theoclate

(American) A faithful woman Promice, Promyse, Promyce, Promis, Promiss, Promys, Promyss... promise

The principle that those needing care are able to access it speedily.... prompt attention

A number ranging between 0 and 0.1 calculated by dividing the number of subjects having a certain characteristic by the total number of subjects. See also “percentage”.... proportion

A measure of the relative contribution to total mortality by a specific cause and these are expressed as number of deaths assigned to the state cause in a calendar year per 1000 total deaths in that year.... proportional mortality rate (pmr)

One of the BETA-ADRENOCEPTOR-BLOCKING DRUGS, propranolol hydrochloride is used in the treatment of ANGINA PECTORIS, myocardial infarction (see under HEART, DISEASES OF), certain abnormal rhythms of the heart, and high blood pressure (HYPERTENSION). It also prevents attacks of MIGRAINE, and is used for certain anxiety states – particularly those associated with unpleasant bodily sensations, such as palpitations. (See also ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS.)... propranolol hydrochloride

Sensory nerve endings in the muscles, tendons and joints which signal to the brain their position relative to the outside world and the state of contraction of the muscle. During movement, a regular ?ow of information to the brain from the proprioceptors, the eyes and ears ensures that actions are coordinated and the body’s balance maintained.... proprioceptors

(Latin) In mythology, goddess of the underworld Proserpinah, Proserpyna, Proserpeena, Proserpiena, Proserpeana... proserpina

Stuntz.

Synonym: Prosopis juliflora DC.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Argentine, Arid, Mexican, Peruvian and Australian species have been introduced into India.

English: Mesquite.

Folk: Khejaraa, Vilaayati Kikar, Kaabuli Kikar.

Action: Gum—inferior to Gum arabic. The dry wood contains 0.9, bark 3.0-8.4, and roots 6-7% tannin.

The leaves contain piperidine alkaloids, juliprosinene, juliflorinine and N-methyljuliforidine. Other alkaloids present in the leaves are juliprosine, isojuliprosine, juliflorine, julifloricine and julifloridine.

A mixture of alkaloids containing mainly juliprosine and isojuliprosine showed significant antifungal activity against dermatophytes (comparable to griseofulvin).

The alkaloid fraction also showed broad spectrum bactericidal action against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria (comparable to antibiotics like penicillin, streptomycin, ampicillin, sulphamethoxazole and te- tracycline).

Significant activity of juliflorine against fungi and bacteria, and that of julifloricine against bacteria has also been reported.

The fruit gave a flavone glycoside, patulitrin which exhibited cytotoxic activity.... prosopis chilensis

Linn.

Synonym: P. cineraria Druce.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Dry and acrid regions of India.

Ayurvedic: Shami, Tungaa, Keshahantri, Shankuphalaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Kalisam.

Action: Pod—astringent, pectoral, demulcent. Bark—anti- inflammatory, antirheumatic. Flower—administered to prevent miscarriage.

The stem bark contains vitamin K, n-octacosyl acetate, the long chain aliphatic acid. Presence of glucose, rhamnose, sucrose and starch is also reported.

A cytotoxic principle, patulibin, has been isolated from flowers.

Dosage: Leaf, fruit—3-5 g powder, 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... prosopis spicigera

Kunth.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Parts of Punjab and Gujarat.

Ayurvedic: Samudra-shami, Shami (var.).

Folk: Khejaraa (var.)

Action: Pods and roots—astringent, styptic, antidysenteric.... prosopis stephaniana

A system whereby reimbursement rates are set for a given period of time prior to the circumstances giving rise to actual reimbursement claims.... prospective payment system

(Latin) One who is fortunate Prosperia, Prosper, Prosperea, Prosperous... prospera

Those natural substances, so-called because they were ?rst discovered in the SEMEN and thought to arise in the PROSTATE GLAND, are a group of fatty-acid substances with a wide range of activity. The richest known source is semen, but they are also present in many other parts of the body. Their precise mode of action is not yet clear, but they are potent stimulators of muscle contraction and they are also potent VASODILATORS. They cause contraction of the UTERUS and have been used to induce labour (see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR); they are also being used as a means of inducing therapeutic abortions (see ABORTION).

Prostaglandins play an important part in the production of PAIN, and it is now known that ASPIRIN relieves pain by virtue of the fact that it prevents, or antagonises, the formation of certain prostaglandins. In addition, they play some, although as yet incompletely de?ned, part in producing in?ammatory changes. (See INFLAMMATION; NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS).)

Thus prostaglandins have potent biological effects, but their instability and rapid metabolism make them short-acting. They are produced but not stored by most living cells and act locally. The two most important prostaglandins are prostacycline and thromboxane: prostacycline is a vasodilator and an inhibitor of platelet aggregation; thromboxanes have the opposite effects and cause vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation. The NSAIDs act by blocking an ENZYME called cyclo-oxygenase which converts arachidonic acid to the precursors of the various prostaglandins. Despite their potent pharmacological properties, the role of prostaglandins in current therapeutics is limited and controversial. They have been used most successfully as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation in extra-corporeal haemoperfusion systems. The problems with the prostacyclines is that they have to be given intravenously as they are inactive by mouth, and continuous infusion is required because the drug is rapidly eliminated with a half-life of minutes. Side-effects tend to be severe because the drug is usually given at the highest dose the patient can tolerate. The hope for the future lies in the exploitation of the compound to generate, synthetically, stable orally active prostacycline analogues which will inhibit platelet aggregation and hence thrombotic events, and yet have minimal effects on the heart and blood vessels.... prostaglandins

This is a walnut-sized gland that surrounds the beginning of the urethra in men. It secretes the alkaline transport fluid that mixes with sperm from the testes to form semen. The prostate needs adequate anabolic steroid stimulation for its health and growth, especially testosterone. Because of diminished healthy hormone levels, pelvic congestion, and decreased blood (and hormone) circulation, or because of sexually transmitted or urinary tract infections, a male may get prostatitis. (See BPH.)... prostate

Disease of the PROSTATE GLAND can affect the ?ow of URINE so that patients present with urological symptoms.

Prostatitis This can be either acute or chronic. Acute prostatitis is caused by a bacterial infection, while chronic prostatitis may follow on from an acute attack, arise insidiously, or be non-bacterial in origin.

Symptoms Typically the patient has pain in the PERINEUM, groins, or supra pubic region, and pain on EJACULATION. He may also have urinary frequency, and urgency.

Treatment Acute and chronic prostatitis are treated with a prolonged course of antibiotics. Patients with chronic prostatitis may also require anti-in?ammatory drugs, and antidepressants.

Prostatic enlargement This is the result of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), causing enlargement of the prostate. The exact cause of this enlargement is unknown, but it affects 50 per cent of men between 40 and 59 years and 95 per cent of men over 70 years.

Symptoms These are urinary hesitancy, poor urinary stream, terminal dribbling, frequency and urgency of urination and the need to pass urine at night (nocturia). The diagnosis is made from the patient’s history; a digital examination of the prostate gland via the rectum to assess enlargement; and analysis of the urinary ?ow rate.

Treatment This can be with tablets, which either shrink the prostate – an anti-androgen drug such as ?nasteride – or relax the urinary sphincter muscle during urination. For more severe symptoms the prostate can be removed surgically, by transurethral resection of prostate (TURP), using either electrocautery or laser energy. A new treatment is the use of microwaves to heat up and shrink the enlarged gland.

Cancer Cancer of the prostate is the fourth most common cause of death from cancer in northern European males: more than 10,000 cases are diagnosed every year in the UK and the incidence is rising by 3 per cent annually.

Little is known about the cause, but the majority of prostate cancers require the male hormones, androgens, to grow.

Symptoms These are similar to those resulting from benign prostatic hypertrophy (see above). Spread of the cancer to bones can cause pain. The use of a blood test measuring the amount of an ANTIGEN, PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN (PSA), can be helpful in making the diagnosis – as can an ULTRASOUND scan of the prostate.

Treatment This could be surgical, with removal of the prostate (either via an abdominal incision, total prostatectomy, or transurethrally), or could be by radiotherapy. In more advanced cancers, treatment with anti-androgen drugs, such as cyprotexone acetate or certain oestrogens, is used to inhibit the growth of the cancer.... prostate gland, diseases of

See under PROSTATE GLAND, DISEASES OF.... prostatis

An ENZYME produced by glandular tissue in the PROSTATE GLAND. When the gland enlarges (see PROSTATE, DISEASES OF), greater amounts of PSA are secreted, raising the concentration of the enzyme in the blood. This is especially so in cancer of the prostate, and testing the level of PSA is an indicator that the disease may be present. There is much controversy about the use of PSA as a screening test. Its proponents claim that its use reduces deaths from prostate cancer; its opponents suggest that it does this only by bringing to light many cases that needed no treatment and would not have caused death in any case. Further, if the level of PSA is very high, the disease is already advanced; where the result is equivocal it is uncertain whether the bene?ts of treatment outweigh the risks.... prostate specific antigen (psa)

A new group of drugs which, in combination with antiviral agents, are used to treat AIDS (see AIDS/HIV). They inhibit the activity of PROTEASE, an enzyme produced by HIV, and which breaks down proteins. The drugs have recently been introduced: those in use are indinavir, nel?navir, ritonavir and saquinavir.... protease inhibitors

An enzyme or agent that speeds up the breaking down or digestive hydrolysis of proteins into smaller proteins, peptides, polypeptides, oligopeptides, amino acids, and all that delicious nitrogenous slurry-stuff.... proteolytic

(Hindi) One who dances Protimah, Proteema, Proteemah, Proteima, Proteimah, Protiema, Protiemah, Proteama, Proteamah, Protyma, Protymah... protima

Standards or practices developed to assist health care providers and older persons to make and effect decisions about particular steps in the treatment process.... protocol

The scolex of a larval stage of the hydatid tapeworm. Morphologically it resembles the adult scolex.... protoscolex

(French) Woman of the province Provah, Provva, Provvah, Provia, Proviah, Provea, Proveah... prova

An individual health care professional, a group or an institution that delivers care services.... provider

Reagent used by intradermal administration in the Mantoux (tuberculin) test for TB.... purified protein derivative (ppd)

Wall.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas at altitudes of 1,500-2,100 m, in grassy slopes.

Ayurvedic: Kaakoli, Kshira-Kaakoli.

Action: Tuberous root—revitalizing tonic, age-sustainer; used in restorative tonics.

One of the ingredients of the "Eight Tonic Herbs" (Ashta-varga) of Ayurvedic medicine.... roscoea procera

The process whereby a person is assessed for care needs using one form/mechanism so that agencies do not duplicate each other’s assessment.... single assessment process

Through volunteers or community workers, a service providing companionship and support for older people who may be lonely and isolated.... visiting service / visitor programme

Remedies that inhibit the action of protozoa, a class of single-celled microscopic animals. Ipecacuanha, Peruvian bark. ... anti-protozoals

Any previously existing mental-health problems may worsen under the stress of pregnancy and childbirth, and a woman’s socio-economic circumstances may be an in?uential factor. Mood swings are common in pregnant women and mothers of new babies; sympathetic support from sta? and relations will usually remedy the situation. If postnatal depression lasts for more than a week or two the use of mild ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS may be justi?ed. If depression persists, referral to a psychiatrist may be advisable. Rarely, severe psychiatric problems – puerperal psychosis – may develop during or after pregnancy and referral to an appropriate psychiatric unit is then essential. If the mother’s social circumstances are unsatisfactory, advice should be sought from social services departments. Mothers may also need advice on bene?ts to which they are entitled and how to claim them. Bene?ts Agency o?ces or Citizens’ Advice Bureaux as well as antenatal clinics are useful sources of information.... psychological and social problems

Pu’erh tea is a type of post-fermented tea produced in China. Read this article to find out more about its many health benefits! About Pu’erh Tea Pu’erh tea is a post-fermented tea produced in the Chinese province Yunnan. Post-fermented teas are different from other types of tea in the sense that, after the leaves are dried and rolled, they undergo a microbial fermentation process. The pu’erh teais available as loose leaves or as tea brick (tea leaves packed in molds and pressed into block form). There are also two categories of pu’erh tea: the raw type and the ripe type. Raw pu’erh tea can count as a type of green tea. Ripened or aged pu’erh tea is often mistakenly called a type of black tea, though it isn’t. How to prepare Pu’erh Tea Pu’erh tea can be bought and prepared in loose leaf form, in tea bag form, or in compacted cake form. If you’re using leaves, add a teaspoon to a cup of freshly boiled water and let it steep for about 20 seconds before you pour off the water; this process id called rinsing, in order to prepare the leaves for the tea. Next, pour freshly boiled water again, let it steep for 30 seconds or one minute. This will give the tea a mild, but pleasant flavor. If you want a stronger flavor, you can let it steep up to 50 minutes, until it turns as dark as coffee. Pu’erh leaves can be resteeped several times (4-8 times). Just add about 20 more seconds to each steeping process. The same applies to pu’erh tea in compacted cake form. To get the leaves, either flake off pieces of the cake, or steam the entire cake until it becomes soft. Pu’erh Tea Benefits Pu’erh tea had important health benefits related to blood circulation. It can help lower blood cholesterol levels. It also boosts the flow of blood and enhances your blood circulation. Drinking pu’erh tea can help prevent cancer, as it helps prevent the formation and growth of cancer cells. It also promotes a proper, healthy digestion, and is good for your spleen. You don’t have to worry even if you’re on a diet; drinking pu’erh tea will help you lose weight, as it breaks down and reduces the fat in your body. As pu’erh tea contains caffeine, drinking it helps keep you alert and focused. It also helps with removing toxins from your body, and it can prove to be useful if you’re dealing with various aches and pains. Pu’erh tea can also help you if you’ve got a hangover, especially if you get a headache. Also, it can act as a substitute for coffee, and can have a relaxing effect on you. Pu’erh Tea Side Effects Because of its caffeine content, pu’erh tea shouldn’t be consumed by pregnant or breastfeeding women, as it can affect the baby. Also, you shouldn’t drink pu’erh tea if you’ve got anxiety, bleeding disorders, heart problems, diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, glaucoma, high blood pressure or osteoporosis. It can affect your condition in all of these cases. Pu’erh tea can also interact with medications. A few examples include amphetamines, cimetidine, ephedrine, adenosine, or medications for depression, asthma and slow blood clotting. The list includes more, so if you’re under medication, make sure you check with your doctor first, to see if it’s safe to drink pu’erh tea.   Pu’erh tea has important health benefits, though the same goes for side effects, as well. Make sure it’s safe to drink pu’erh tea, and then you can enjoy a cup of tea without having to worry about its side effects.... pu’erh tea pros and cons

See: TEETH DECAY, TEETH EXTRACTION, ALOE VERA. DEOBSTRUENT. That which clears obstruction by dilating natural passages of the body. Usually of the intestines (Ispaghula seeds) or colon (Buckbean). ... dental problems

Reduce intake of foods, taking small helpings: meat, eggs, poultry, fish, milk, cheese, dried peas and beans, pulses, nuts, bread, pasta, wheat flour.

Accept: rice, cornflour, honey, salad vegetables, all fruits, preserves. ... diet - low protein

Labelling regulations require every dispensed product, i.e. a container of medicine, lotion, tablets, ointment, etc, to be labelled with the following particulars:–

1. Name of the patient.

2. Name and address of the herbal practitioner.

3. Directions for use of the remedy.

4. Liquid preparations for local or topical use to be clearly marked: For external use only.

Statutory Instruments: Medicine (Labelling) Regulations 1976 No. 1726. Medicines (Labelling) Regulations 1977 No. 996. ... labelling of herbal products by a practitioner

 May be caused by a decline in hormone levels. Indicated: Agnus Castus, Black Cohosh.

See: MENORRHAGIA. ... menstruation, prolonged

Herbal products are chiefly used to relieve symptoms of self- limiting conditions. Such products are either P (pharmacy only) or GSL (General Sales List). The Medicines (Labelling and Advertising to the Public) Regulations 1978 (SI 1978 No 41) state the range of conditions on schedule 2, parts I-IV. Dried herbs on sale under their plant or botanical name over the counter are exempt, provided no medicinal claims are made. ... over-the-counter products

QAPI establishes strategies for promoting high quality health care. First, each organization must meet certain required levels of performance when providing specific health care and related services. Second, organizations must conduct performance improvement projects that are outcome-oriented and that achieve demonstrable and sustained improvement in care and services. It is expected that an organization will continuously monitor its own performance on a variety of dimensions of care and services, identify its own areas for potential improvement, carry out individual projects to undertake system interventions to improve care, and monitor the effectiveness of those interventions.... quality assessment and performance improvement programme (qapi)

Professional sta? working in health care are registered with and regulated by several statutory bodies: doctors by the GENERAL MEDICAL COUNCIL (GMC); dentists by the GENERAL DENTAL COUNCIL; nurses and midwives by the Council for Nursing and Midwifery, formerly the UK Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting (see NURSING); PHARMACISTS by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society; and the professions supplementary to medicine (chiropody, dietetics, medical laboratory sciences, occupational therapy, orthoptics, physiotherapy and radiography) by the Council for Professions Supplementary to Medicine. In 2002, the Council for the Regulation of Health Care Professions was set up as a statutory body that will promote cooperation between and give advice to existing regulatory bodies, provide a quality-control mechanism, and play a part in promoting the interests of patients. The new Council is accountable to a Select Committee of Parliament and is a non-ministerial government department similar in status to the FOOD STANDARDS AGENCY. It has the right to scrutinise the decisions of its constituent bodies and can apply for judicial review if it feels that a judgement by a disciplinary committee has been too lenient.... regulation of health professions

Edgew.

Family: Rhamnaceae.

Habitat: Western Himalayas from Simla to Kumaon at an altitude of 2,300 to 2,600 m.

English: Buckthorn (related species).

Action: Plant—anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer.

The plant contains kaempferol, kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether and kaempferol-4'-O-methyl ether.

The ethyl acetate soluble portion of the alcoholic extract showed anti- nociceptive, anticonvulsant and anti- inflammatory activity. Kaempferol-4'- O-methyl ether was found to exhibit central nervous system depressant, cardiac stimulant, antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory activity

The plant also contain emodin, which exhibited cardiac and intestinal stimulant, central nervous system depressant and analgesic activity in experimental animals.... rhamnus procumbens

Linn.

Family: Asteraceae; Compositae.

Habitat: Waste places, road sides and hedges throughout India.

English: Mexican Daisy.

Ayurvedic: Jayanti (doubtful synonym).

Siddha/Tamil: Vettukkaaya-thalai.

Folk: Akala Kohadi (Bihar).

Action: Leaves—styptic, antidiar- rhoeal, antidysenteric. Also used for bronchial catarrh.

The leaf juice exhibits antiseptic, insecticidal and parasiticidal properties. It is used to check haemorrhage from wounds, cuts and bruises, also for restoring hair growth.

An aqueous extract of the plant produced reflex tachycardia and showed a transient hypotensive effect on normal blood pressure of dogs; it had also showed a marked depressant action on the respiration.

Alcoholic extract of the whole plant (excluding roots) at a dose of 300 mg showed good anti-secretory antidiar- rhoeal activity against E. coli enterotox- in-induced secretory response in rabbit and guinea-pig ileal loop models. Alcoholic extract of aerial parts also showed hepatoprotective action against acute hepatitis induced by CCl4 in albino rats.

The leaves contain fumaric acid. The plant gave n-alkanes, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids along with dotria- contanol, beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, lupeol, fucosterol and beta-sitosterol. Flowers contain glucoluteolin, iso- quercetin and quercetin. Presence of lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, palmitoleic, linole- ic and linolenic acid is reported in aerial parts except flower tops. cine, is used as Ispast. The seeds contain xanthosin.... tridax procumbens

An analgesic drug containing paracetamol and the weak opioid analgesic dextropropoxyphene, widely used to relieve mild to moderate pain that has not responded to paracetamol or other nonopioid analgesics alone.

Side effects are dizziness, drowsiness, constipation, and nausea.

The drug may be habit-forming if taken over a long period.... co-proxamol

A common term for a range of psychological difficulties, often related to anxiety or depression, which may have various causes.... emotional problems

A specific fragment of DNA that is used in laboratory tests to determine whether particular genetic defects are present in an individual’s DNA.

Genetic probes are mainly used in antenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders, and in investigating whether people with a family history of a genetic disorder carry the defective gene themselves.... genetic probe

A common, slight deformity of the mitral valve, in the left side of the heart, that can produce a degree of mitral incompetence. The prolapse is most common in women and causes a heart murmur. It may be inherited, but the cause is often unknown.Usually, there are no symptoms, and treatment is not needed. Occasionally, the condition may produce chest pain, arrhythmia, or, rarely, heart failure. Often, no treatment is required for mitral valve prolapse, but some people may be treated with beta-blocker drugs, diuretic drugs, antiarrhythmic drugs, or, rarely, heart-valve surgery.... mitral valve prolapse

If you’re experiencing abdominal pain and you’re sure it’s not a digestive tract ailment, it’s very possible that you’re suffering from a kidney disorder. The same if the pain is localized in the back or on one side of your body. Usually, kidney problems appear when there’s something wrong with your urinary tract and not only. Overexposing your body to low temperatures may cause urinary infections, impurity accumulations lead to kidney stones. Also, kidney problems can be caused by other health complaints, such as pulmonary edema and cancers. However, it’s best to schedule an appointment with your doctor in order to find out what’s actually going on with your body. How a Tea for Kidney Problems Works A Tea for Kidney Problems’ main goal is to purify your body by triggering a positive response from it. Once the main substances of these teas reach the affected areas, your organism produces enough endorphins (which are cells specialized in making you feel a lot better by bringing relief to your wounds) and antibodies to reconstruct the damaged tissue. Efficient Tea for Kidney Problems In order to work properly, a Tea for Kidney Problems needs to be both efficient and one hundred percent safe. Also, it must contain the right amount of nutrients, natural enzymes, volatile oils, antioxidants and minerals (sodium, magnesium, iron and manganese). This way, that tea will make your body eliminate the unwanted impurities and improve your kidney function. If you don’t know which teas would be appropriate for your condition, here’s a list to choose from: - Dandelion Tea – can be prepared from dandelion roots and it’s also a great adjuvant in diarrhea and urinary infection cases. This Tea for Kidney Problems has a bitter taste, but you can add ginger, lemon, mint or honey in order to make it more adequate for you. Avoid it at all costs if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding: due to its strong purgative and diuretic properties, Dandelion Tea can cause uterine contractions which may lead to miscarriages. - Marshmallow Root Tea – this lovely tea with a hint of Christmas is useful for a large variety of problems, from infertility to gastrointestinal and digestive complaints. Take a sip at every 5 minutes for an hour and enjoy the wonderful health benefits! - Buchu Tea – contains antioxidants and antibacterial agents, being a great help in cases of cystitis, urethritis and kidney failure. This Tea for Kidney acts like a natural diuretic and should not be taken by pregnant women. - Green Tea – as the scientists have proved, this decoction contains all the ingredients necessary to sustain life, so it’s useful for many problems, not just kidney disorders. However, don’t take it if you’re experiencing menstrual and menopausal symptoms (it can cause uterine contractions and stomach acidity). Tea for Kidney Problems Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are generally safe. However, exceeding the number of cups recommended per day might lead to a number of health problems such as miscarriages, hallucinations, headaches and skin rash. If you’ve been taking one of these teas and something doesn’t feel quite right, talk to your doctor as soon as possible. Don’t take a Tea for Kidney Problems if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners or anticoagulants. The same advice if you’re preparing for a surgery. If you have the medical approval and there’s nothing that could interfere with your treatment, choose a Tea for Kidney problems that fits best your needs and give it a try today!  ... tea for kidney problems

Adeno-carcinoma. A hormone-related tumour in elderly men. Enlargement of the gland may be benign or carcinomatous. Fibrosis (hardening) may arise from inflammation. Obstruction of the outlet of the bladder through swelling of the gland (prostatism) may cause uraemia.

Symptoms. Bladder irritability; increased frequency during the night. Feeble forked stream of urine. Sometimes blood. Three quarters of such tumours are located in the posterior lobe of the prostate gland – readily accessible to the examining finger through the front wall of the rectum. Rectal examination reveals a hard rugged prostate. Cystoscopy confirms. Bone pains in the low back or pelvis reflect a stage where the tumour has already spread. Anaemia, weight loss, urgency.

All symptoms are worse by alcohol and spicy foods.

Harvard University scientists report: heavy consumption of animal fat, especially the fat in red meat appears to increase the chance that a man will develop advanced prostate cancer.

Of therapeutic value. Comfrey, Echinacea, Horsetail, Poke root, Thuja, Cornsilk, Goldenseal.

Tea. Combination. Comfrey leaves, Horsetail, Cornsilk. Equal parts. 2-3 teaspoons to each cup boiling water. Drink freely.

Formula No. 1. Echinacea 2; Comfrey 1; Poke root half; Thuja half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Thrice daily in water or cup of Cornsilk tea.

Formula No. 2. (Alternative) Echinacea 2; Goldenseal 1; Gotu Kola 1; Poke root half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons in water or cup of Cornsilk tea.

Bee pollen. Of value.

Garlic. Of value.

Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.

There is a very low incidence of prostate cancer in countries where Soya products are widely consumed – Soya contains a female hormone which is a protector factor.

Supplements. Morning and evening.

Vitamin A 7500iu or more. Large doses may be required. Vitamin C 1-2g. Vitamin E 200iu. Calcium 500mg. Selenium 100mcg. Zinc.

Study. Men with prostate cancer may not need to undergo radical prostatectomy (removal of the prostate gland). A 10-year follow-up study of men with early prostate cancer left untreated showed that 10 years later only 8.5 per cent of the 223 patients had died from prostate cancer. The survival rate of 86.8 per cent in the untreated group was nearly identical to a subgroup who met all the conditions for radical prostatectomy. (Journal of American Medical Association, 22/29 April 1992)

Commonly treated with female sex hormone or by orchidectomy.

It would appear that surgical removal of the gland offers little benefit, and possibly a disadvantage to patients wishing to leave well alone, particularly the elderly. Treatment by a general medical practitioner or oncologist. ... cancer – prostate gland

Proteins present in blood plasma, including albumin, blood clotting proteins, and immunoglobulins.... plasma proteins

Species of microorganisms that inhabit the digestive tract, guarding it against harmful bacteria, yeasts, and viruses.... probiotic bacteria

The law requires labels to carry a full description of all ingredients. No label should bear the name of a specific disease or promote treatment for any serious disease or condition requiring consultation with a registered medical practitioner. Labels must not contravene The Medicines (Labelling and Advertising to the Public), SI 41, Regulations, 1978.

Misleading claims and the use of such words as “organic”, “wholesome”, “natural” or “biological” cannot be accepted on product labels. The Licensing Authority treats herbal manufacturers no differently than manufacturers of allopathic products for serious conditions.

The Advertising Standards Authority does not allow quotation of any medicinal claims, except where a Product Licence (PL) has been authorised by the Licensing Authority.

All labels must include: Name of product (as on Product Licence), description of pharmaceutical form (tablet, mixture etc), Product Licence No., Batch No., quantity of each active ingredient in each unit dose in metric terms; dose and directions for use; quantity in container (in metric terms); “Keep out of reach of children” or similar warning; Name and address of Product Licence Holder; expiry date (if applicable); and any other special warnings. Also to appear: excipients, method/route of administration, special storage instructions, and precautions for disposal, if any.

Where licences are granted, the following words should appear on the label of a product: “A herbal product traditionally used for the symptomatic relief of . . .”. “If symptoms persist see your doctor.” “Not to be used in pregnancy” (where applicable). “If you think you have . . . consult a registered medical practitioner before taking this product.” “If you are already receiving medical treatment, tell your doctor that you are taking this product.” These warnings are especially necessary should symptoms persist and be the start of something more serious than a self-limiting condition.

Herbal preparations should be labelled with the additives and colourings they contain, if any. This helps practitioners avoid prescribing medicines containing them to certain patients on whom they may have an adverse reaction.

Labels of medicinal products shall comply with the Medicines (Labelling) Regulations 1976 (SI 1976 No. 1726) as amended by the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1977 (SI 1977 No. 996), the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1981 (SI 1981 No. 1791) and the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1985 (SI 1985 No. 1558).

Leaflets issued with proprietory medicinal products shall comply with the requirements of the Medicines (Leaflets) Regulations 1977 (SI 1977 No. 1055).

See also: ADVERTISING: CODE OF PRACTICE. BRITISH HERBAL MEDICINE ASSOCIATION. ... labelling of herbal products

Behavioural problems range from mild, short-lived periods of unacceptable behaviour, which are common in most children, to more severe problems such as conduct disorders and refusal to go to school. Behavioural problems may occasionally occur in any child; specialist management is called for when the problems become frequent and disrupt school and/or family life. Some behavioural problems can occur whatever the family or home situation. In some cases, however, stressful external events, such as moving home or divorce, may produce periods of problem behaviour.

Behavioural problems that are common in babies and young children include feeding difficulties (see feeding, infant) and sleeping problems, such as waking repeatedly in the night. In toddlers, breath-holding attacks, tantrums, separation anxiety, and head-banging are problems best dealt with by a consistent and appropriate approach. Problems with toilet-training are usually avoided if the training is delayed until the child is physically and emotionally ready.

Between the ages of 4 and 8, behavioural problems such as nail-biting and thumb-sucking, clinginess, nightmares, and bed-wetting (see enuresis) are so common as to be almost normal.

They are best dealt with by a positive approach that concentrates on rewarding good behaviour.

In most cases, the child grows out of the problem, but sometimes medical help may be needed.... behavioural problems in children

Donated blood that is separated into its various components: red cells, white cells, platelets, and plasma (see blood donation). Each blood product has a specific lifespan and use in blood transfusion. Packed red cells (blood with most of the plasma removed) are used to treat patients with some forms of chronic anaemia and babies with haemolytic disease of the newborn. Washed red cells (with white blood cells and/or plasma proteins removed) are used when a person needs repeated transfusions because there is less risk of an allergy to any of the blood components developing.

Platelets may be given in transfusions for people with blood-clotting disorders. Patients who have life-threatening infections may be treated with granulocytes, a type of white blood cell. Fresh frozen plasma is used to correct many types of bleeding disorder because it contains all the clotting factors. Albumin, prepared from the plasma of whole blood, is used mainly to treat shock resulting from severe blood loss until compatible whole blood becomes available. Purified albumin preparations are used to treat nephrotic syndrome and chronic liver disease.

Concentrates of blood clotting factors and are used in the treatment of haemophilia and Christmas disease.

Immunoglobulins (also called antibodies), which are extracted from blood plasma, can be given by injection (see immunoglobulin injection) to protect people who are unable to produce their own antibodies or have already been exposed to an infectious agent, or to provide short-term protection against hepatitis A.

Immunoglobulins are given in large doses to treat certain autoimmune disorders.... blood products

An antiarrhythmic drug that is used to treat certain types of tachycardia.

Procainamide may cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and, rarely, confusion.

Prolonged treatment may induce lupus erythematosus.... procainamide

A severe cramping pain in the rectum unconnected with any disease. It may be due to muscle spasm. The pain is of short duration and subsides without treatment.... proctalgia fugax

Examination of the anus and rectum with a proctoscope (a rigid viewing instrument).... proctoscopy

A common disorder of the spine, in which an intervertebral disc ruptures and part of its pulpy core protrudes. It causes painful and at times disabling pressure on a nerve root or, less commonly, on the spinal cord. The lower back is most commonly affected. A prolapsed disc may sometimes be caused by a sudden strenuous action, but it usually develops gradually as a result of degeneration of the discs with age. If the sciatic nerve root is compressed, it causes sciatica, which may be accompanied by numbness and tingling, and, eventually, weakness in the muscles of the leg. A prolapsed disc in the neck causes neck pain and weakness in the arm and hand.

Symptoms improve with time and analgesic drugs. However, in severe cases, surgical techniques, such as decompression of the spinal canal or removal of the protruding material and repair of the disc, may be necessary.... disc prolapse

A female sex hormone essential for the functioning of the female reproductive system.

Progesterone is made in the ovaries, and small amounts are produced by the adrenal glands and testes.

During the menstrual cycle, changing progesterone levels cause thickening of the endometrium and menstruation.

If pregnancy occurs, progesterone is produced by the placenta; a fall in its level helps to initiate labour.

Progesterone also causes increased fat deposition and increased sebum production by glands in the skin.... progesterone hormone

A group of drugs similar to progesterone hormone. The drugs are used in oral contraceptives, are prescribed to treat menstrual problems (see menstruation, disorders of), and are included in hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Progestogen drugs are also used to treat premenstrual syndrome, endometriosis, and hypogonadism, and are sometimes used as anticancer drugs. Adverse effects include weight gain, oedema, headache, dizziness, rash, irregular periods, breast tenderness, and ovarian cysts.... progestogen drugs

A term used to describe a condition that becomes more severe and/or extensive over time.... progressive

A type of motor neuron disease in which the muscles of the hands, arms, and legs become weak and wasted and twitch involuntarily. The condition eventually spreads to other muscles.... progressive muscular atrophy

A term for a drug patented for production by one company.... proprietary

The body’s internal system for collecting information about its position and the state of contraction of its muscles.

Information from proprioceptors (sensory nerve endings in the muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear) passes to the spinal cord and the brain.

The information is used to make adjustments so that posture and balance are maintained.... proprioception

Synthetically produced prostaglandins.

Dinoprostone is used with oxytocin for induction of labour.

Gemeprost softens and helps to dilate the cervix prior to inducing an abortion.

Alprostadil is used to treat newborn infants awaiting surgery for some congenital heart diseases.... prostaglandin drugs

The branch of dentistry concerned with the replacement of missing teeth and their supporting structures. It includes dentures, overdentures (semipermanent fittings over existing teeth), crowns (see crown, dental), and bridges (see bridge, dental).

protease inhibitors A type of antiviral drug used to delay the progression of HIV infection (see AIDS).... prosthetics, dental

Large molecules consisting of hundreds or thousands of amino acids linked into long chains. Proteins may also contain sugars (glycoproteins) and lipids (lipoproteins). There are 2 main types of proteins. Fibrous proteins are insoluble and form the structural basis of many body tissues. Globular proteins are soluble and include all enzymes, many hormones, and some blood proteins, such as haemoglobin.... proteins

The formation of protein molecules through the joining of amino acids.... protein synthesis

Any difficulty associated with sexual performance or behaviour. Sexual problems are often psychological in origin (see psychosexual dysfunction). Sex therapy may help such problems. Some sexual problems are due to physical disease, such as a disorder affecting blood flow or a hormonal dysfunction. A disorder of the genitals may result in pain during intercourse (see intercourse, painful). Such problems are addressed by treating the cause, where possible.... sexual problems

A cancerous growth in the prostate gland, of unknown cause. One of the most common cancers in men, it mainly occurs in elderly men.

An enlarged prostate (see prostate, enlarged) may cause symptoms including difficulty in starting to pass urine, poor urine flow, and increased frequency of urination. Urine flow may eventually cease altogether. When there are no urinary symptoms, the first sign may be pain in the bones from secondary cancers. Screening tests detect blood levels of a protein called prostate specific antigen;

if above a certain level, it may indicate prostate cancer.

Rectal examination allows a doctor to assess the size and hardness of the gland.

Ultrasound scanning and a biopsy confirm the diagnosis.

Blood tests and a bone scan (see radionuclide scanning) may also be done.

In an elderly man with a small prostate cancer that has not spread, no treatment may be recommended.

For younger men, prostatectomy or radiotherapy may be performed.

Widespread disease is usually controllable for some years with orchidectomy or drugs.... prostate, cancer of

An increase in the size of the inner zone of the prostate gland, also known as benign prostatic hypertrophy. It is most common in men over 50. The cause is unknown. The enlarging prostate compresses and distorts the urethra, impeding the flow of urine. Eventually the bladder is unable to expel all the urine (see urine retention) and becomes distended, causing abdominal swelling. There may also be incontinence and frequency of urination (see urination, frequent).

Prostate enlargement is detected by a rectal examination.

Tests may include a blood test, ultrasound scanning, urography, and a recording of the strength of urine flow.

Mild cases do not require treatment, but more severe ones usually require prostatectomy.

Alternatively, drug treatment with alpha-blocker drugs or androgen drugs may be given.... prostate, enlarged

See uterus, prolapse of.... uterovaginal prolapse

A condition in which the uterus descends from its normal position into the vagina. The degree of prolapse varies from 1st-degree prolapse, in which there is only slight displacement of the uterus, to 3rd-degree prolapse (procidentia), in which the uterus can be seen outside the vulva.

Stretching of the ligaments supporting the uterus (during childbirth, for example) is the most common cause. Prolapse is aggravated by obesity.

There are often no symptoms, but sometimes there is a dragging feeling in the pelvis. Diagnosis is made by physical examination.

Pelvic floor exercises strengthen the muscles of the vagina and thus reduce the risk of a prolapse, especially following childbirth. Treatment usually involves surgery (hysterectomy). Rarely, if surgery is not wanted or is not recommended, a plastic ring-shaped pessary may be inserted into the vagina to hold the uterus in position. (See also cystocele; rectocele; urethrocele.)... uterus, prolapse of

damaged proteins that result from the *glycation of a large number of body proteins, which can accumulate and cause permanent damage to tissues. This damage is more prevalent in diabetics due to chronic exposure to blood with high concentrations of glucose. It is believed to be partly responsible for the damage to the kidneys, eyes, and blood vessels that characterizes long-standing diabetes.... advanced glycation end-products

a health-care professional with expert knowledge and experience in certain fields but without a medical or nursing qualification. Allied health professionals include speech and language therapists, radiographers, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and dieticians.... allied health professional

(AQP) any of a range of suitable health-care providers in a scheme operating in the National Health Service from whom patients can choose to receive their care. These include providers from outside the NHS, such as social enterprises, charities, or private sector providers.... any qualified provider

(APD, central auditory processing disorder, CAPD) a series of conditions characterized by difficulty in hearing and processing auditory information, especially in poor acoustic environments, despite normal or near-normal ear function. It may be due to genetic factors, maturational delay in the central nervous system, or focal abnormalities of the central nervous system (such as tumours). Treatments include *hearing therapy, *auditory skills training, educational support, use of *assistive listening devices, and training with computerized therapy tools.... auditory processing disorder

a protein of low molecular weight found in the urine of patients with multiple *myeloma and rarely in patients with *lymphoma, *leukaemia, and *Hodgkin’s disease. [H. Bence-Jones (1814–73), British physician]... bence-jones protein

a physiological assessment of fetal wellbeing, based on scores for each of the following: fetal breathing, fetal movement, fetal tone, and *amniotic fluid volume (as observed on ultrasound) and fetal heart rate (measured by *cardiotocography). The maximum score is 10 (with 2 points for each component).... biophysical profile

see auditory processing disorder.... central auditory processing disorder

(in Britain) a confidential list of children whose social circumstances render them at risk of neglect or abuse. Each local authority maintains a register of children who are subject to a child protection plan, who will receive extra support and surveillance from health and/or social services. See also safeguarding.... child protection register

(CHP) a consultant within *Public Health England who is responsible for the surveillance, prevention, and control of communicable disease and noncommunicable environmental exposures. While no longer the preferred term, the older form Consultant in Communicable Disease Control (CCDC) is still sometimes used. See also public health consultant.... consultant in health protection

a beaklike process that curves upwards and forwards from the top of the *scapula, over the shoulder joint.... coracoid process

rupture of the membranes in cases of a *cord presentation. It is an obstetric emergency: there is a severe risk of cord compression and spasm causing fetal asphyxia (see hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy). Delivery must occur as soon as possible and the presenting part displaced away from the cord.... cord prolapse

1. a process on the upper end of the *ulna. It forms part of the notch that articulates with the humerus. 2. the process on the ramus of the *mandible to which the temporalis muscle is attached.... coronoid process

a cardiac surgical procedure performed to prevent atrial *fibrillation. Multiple atrial incisions are made in a mazelike pattern. These incisions heal with scar tissue that does not conduct electricity, thus interrupting the abnormal electrical impulses that trigger atrial fibrillation. [J. Cox (21st century), US surgeon]... cox maze procedure

legal safeguards relating to the use and storage of personal information about a living person. Under the Data Protection Act 2018, which implements the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and supersedes the Data Protection Act 1998, individuals have a basic right to control information stored about them. Information concerning health, considered ‘sensitive personal data’ under the legislation, must be used only for the purpose (health care of the individual) for which it was gathered, must be kept secret, and cannot be used or passed on to others without the knowledge of the subject. However, anonymized health data from individual patients’ electronic records may be used for research purposes or to improve medical treatment and health-service delivery.... data protection

a delusion in which the patient believes that another person or an animal (usually the patient’s pet) has certain physical symptoms, even though these cannot be objectively verified. The patient with the delusional belief is called the inducer; the person or pet that is allegedly affected is the proxy. Some *monodelusional disorders, such as *delusional infestation, have a prevalence of delusion by proxy of up to 5%. Treatment is usually with *antipsychotics. In some situations it may be necessary to remove the proxy to provide safety from the behaviour associated with the delusion. See also double delusion; folie à deux.... delusion by proxy

any of several professionals supporting a dentist, formerly referred to as dental auxiliaries and professionals complementary to dentistry. A dental hygienist performs scaling and instruction in oral hygiene. A dental nurse helps the dentist at the chairside by preparing materials, passing instruments, and aspirating fluids from the patient’s mouth. A dental technician constructs dentures, crowns, and orthodontic appliances in the laboratory for the dentist. A clinical dental technician provides dentures directly to patients. A dental therapist performs non-complex treatment under the prescription of a dentist. In the UK dental care professionals are required to be statutorily registered with the General Dental Council (GDC).... dental care professional

a tumour probably derived from *histiocytes that may occur in any part of the body. It is locally invasive but tends not to metastasize. It often recurs locally despite excision.... dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans

a corticosteroid used for the prophylaxis of asthma, the prophylaxis and treatment of hay fever and perennial rhinitis, and the treatment of dermatitis and eczema.... fluticasone proprionate

a two-year programme of postgraduate medical training, introduced as part of the Modernizing Medical Careers initiative in 2005. Foundation year 1 replaced the old preregistration house officer year, and foundation year 2 replaced the first year of senior house officer training. See also Doctor.... foundation programme

the branch of *public health medicine that is concerned with protecting the population from communicable diseases, chemicals and poisons, radiation, and other potential threats to health. See Public Health England.... health protection

(HPA) formerly, a nondepartmental public body set up as a special health authority in 2003 to protect the health of the UK population via advice and support to the NHS, local authorities, the Department of Health, emergency services, and others. The HPA was abolished in April 2013; its responsibilities were largely passed to *Public Health England. See Consultant in Health Protection.... health protection agency

n. a device that can be passed through an endoscope to apply controlled heat in order to coagulate a bleeding peptic ulcer.... heater-probe

a massive international research project to isolate all the genes in human DNA and determine the sequence of genes on human chromosomes. The project began in 1988 and the full draft sequence was published in 2001; the high-quality sequence was completed in 2003. The human genome comprises some 3 × 109 nucleotide base pairs (see DNA) forming 22,000–25,000 genes, distributed among 23 pairs of chromosomes. Knowledge of the entire human genome has already resulted in the identification of the genes associated with many hereditary disorders and revealed the existence of a genetic basis or component for many other diseases not previously known to have one. Theoretically, this would enable the development of targeted drugs and the large-scale genetic screening of populations. See pharmacogenomics; targeted agent.... human genome project

(IPSS) a self-administered questionnaire, completed by men with *lower urinary tract symptoms, which consists of seven questions based on the extent of symptoms and a single quality-of-life question. It gives a numerical score, on a scale of 0 to 35, to indicate the severity of the patient’s symptoms. A score of 0–7 indicates mild symptoms, 8–19 moderate symptoms, and 20–35 severe symptoms. The quality-of-life question is scored from 0–6.... international prostate symptom score

(MIP) a *post-processing technique used in CT and MRI scanning. When projecting a volume, maximum brightness encountered along the viewing plane will be displayed. This is particularly useful in vascular imaging.... maximum intensity projection

(MHRA) a UK government agency that regulates the use of medicinal drugs and medical devices. The agency regulates and issues *licences for the clinical trial, manufacture, and marketing of new products. It also applies the regulations governing the collection, storage, and use of human blood and blood products.

MHRA section of the website... medicines and healthcare products regulatory agency

a toothlike process from the upper surface of the axis vertebra. See cervical vertebrae.... odontoid process

(PTH-RP) a protein that is secreted by certain malignant tumours and is the main cause of malignant *hypercalcaemia. PTH-RP, which has effects similar to *parathyroid hormone, stimulates generalized bone resorption and excessive calcium reabsorption in the kidney tubules. It is most commonly produced by lung tumours, squamous-cell carcinomas of other organs, melanomas, and tumours of the breast, liver, pancreas, bladder, and prostate.... parathyroid hormone-related protein

(PPACA) see Affordable Care Act 2010.... patient protection and affordable care act

see prosthesis.... penile prosthesis

(PVP) a technique to vaporize the prostate by means of a high-energy laser, used to relieve *lower urinary tract symptoms due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (see prostate gland). It is associated with less blood loss and a shorter hospital stay than a traditional TURP (see resection), but can only be used on smaller prostates.... photoselective vaporization of the prostate

n. (in radiology) the electronic manipulation of digitally acquired images (see digitization) following an examination in order to improve diagnostic accuracy or to improve and optimize visualization.... post-processing

n. the paradoxical triggering of new heart rhythm disturbances by a drug given with the intention of inhibiting an *arrhythmia.... proarrhythmia

n. see significance.... probability

n. see propositus.... proband

n. a long flexible rod with a small sponge, ball, or tuft at the end, used to remove obstructions from the larynx or oesophagus (gullet). A probang is also used to apply medication to these structures.... probang

a measurement of the depth of a periodontal pocket (see periodontal disease).... probing depth

n. a chemical substance that does not itself cause cancer but which can be converted by enzymatic action to another substance that can cause cancer (the ultimate *carcinogen).... procarcinogen

(procto-) combining form denoting the anus and/or rectum.... proct

n. see imperforate anus.... proctatresia

n. enlargement or widening of the rectum, usually due to long-standing constipation (see dyschezia).... proctectasia

n. surgical removal of the rectum. It is usually performed for cancer of the rectum and may require the placement of a stoma (see colostomy). If the anus is left, an *ileal pouch can be constructed to replace the rectum.... proctectomy

n. see rectocele.... proctocele

n. a surgical operation in which the rectum and colon are removed. In panproctocolectomy the entire rectum and colon are removed, necessitating either a permanent opening of the ileum (see ileostomy) or the construction of an *ileal pouch. This is usually performed for *ulcerative colitis.... proctocolectomy

n. inflammation of the rectum and colon, usually due to *ulcerative colitis. See also proctitis.... proctocolitis

n. the site of the embryonic anus, marked by a depression lined with ectoderm. The membrane separating it from the hindgut breaks down in the third month of gestation. Compare stomodeum.... proctodeum

n. see proctalgia.... proctodynia

n. an X-ray of the rectum taken after contrast material has been infused into it using a catheter. A defecating proctogram is a series of X-ray or MR images captured during defecation to highlight any abnormalities.... proctogram

n. the study of disorders of the rectum and anus.... proctology

n. a surgical operation to stitch tears or lacerations of the rectum or anus.... proctorrhaphy

n. an illuminated instrument that allows inspection of the distal rectum and the anus for the presence of haemorrhoids, rectal polyps or masses, anal fissures, and inflammation. Minor procedures (such as banding of haemorrhoids) may be performed during proctoscopy.... proctoscope

n. inflammation of the rectum and the sigmoid (lower) colon. See also proctocolitis.... proctosigmoiditis

n. incision into the rectum or anus to correct *stricture (narrowing) of the canal or to open an *imperforate anus.... proctotomy

adj. relating to the period of time between the appearance of the first symptoms of an infectious disease and the development of a rash or fever. A prodromal rash is one preceding the full rash of an infectious disease.... prodromal

n. a drug that requires metabolism in the liver before becoming biologically active. Examples are *carbimazole, which is metabolized to the pharmacologically active compound methimazole; and *capecitabine, which is metabolized to *fluorouracil.... prodrug

(zymogen) n. the inactive form in which certain enzymes (e.g. digestive enzymes) are originally produced and secreted. The existence of this inactive form prevents the enzyme from breaking down the cells in which it was made. Once the proenzyme has been secreted it is converted to the active form.... proenzyme

n. the earliest recognizable precursor of the red blood cell (erythrocyte). It is found in the bone marrow and has a large nucleus and a cytoplasm that stains deep blue with *Romanowsky stains. See also erythroblast; erythropoiesis.... proerythroblast

n. a measuring device to quantify the roughness of a surface, such as eroded enamel.... profilometer

adj. describing blood vessels that are deeply embedded in the tissues they supply.... profunda

n. surgical enlargement of the junction of the femoral artery and its deep branch, a common operation to relieve narrowing by atherosclerosis at this point.... profundaplasty

n. (pl. proglottids or proglottides) one of the segments of a *tapeworm. Mature segments, situated at the posterior end of the worm, each consist mainly of a branched uterus packed with eggs.... proglottis

see varifocal lenses.... progressive lenses

(Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome) a progressive neurological disorder resulting from degeneration of the motor neurons, basal ganglia, and brainstem. Starting in late middle age, it is characterized by a staring facial expression due to impaired ability to move the eyes up and down, progressing to difficulties in swallowing, speech, balance, and movement and general spasticity. The condition enters the differential diagnosis of *parkinsonism, with which it is often confused in its early stages.... progressive supranuclear palsy

n. possession of a high level of intellectual and technical expertise with a commitment to public service and the ability to practise autonomously within the regulations of the discipline. It calls for a special set of *values, behaviours, and relationships including respect and care for oneself as well as patients and others, honesty, *integrity, reliability, *responsibility, communication, collaboration, *compassion, *empathy, altruism, and *advocacy – but also self-awareness and a knowledge of limits (see burnout). Major shortcomings might be reported to a professional body (such as the *General Medical Council for UK doctors).... professionalism

n. a substance produced in the pancreas from which the hormone *insulin is derived.... proinsulin

n. (in psychology) the attribution of one’s own qualities to other people. In psychoanalysis this is considered to be one of the *defence mechanisms; people who cannot tolerate their own feelings (e.g. anger) may cope by imagining that other people have those feelings (e.g. are angry).... projection

(in psychology) a way of measuring aspects of personality, in which the subject is asked to talk freely about ambiguous objects. His responses are then analysed. Examples are the *Rorschach test and the Thematic Apperception Test (in which the subject invents stories about a set of pictures).... projective test

(prokinetic) an agent (e.g. *domperidone) that stimulates intestinal peristalsis, thus increasing gastrointestinal motility.... prokinetic agent

n. an *amino acid found in many proteins.... proline

prelabour (or premature) rupture of membranes: spontaneous rupture of membranes prior to the onset of labour. The majority of women who demonstrate this phenomenon will go into active labour spontaneously within the following 48 hours. Compare PPROM.... prom

n. an immature cell, found in the bone marrow, that develops into a *megakaryocyte.... promegakaryocyte

n. (in anatomy) a projection, such as a projection on a bone.... prominence

n. (in anatomy) a projecting part of an organ or other structure.... promontory

(in oncogenesis) n. a substance that, in conjunction with an *initiator, leads to the production of a cancer.... promoter

n. a technique used in *behaviour modification to elicit a response not previously present. The subject is made to engage passively in the required behaviour by instructions or by being physically put through the movements. The behaviour can then be rewarded (see reinforcement). This is followed by fading, in which the prompting is gradually withdrawn and the reinforcement maintained.... prompting

(premyelocyte) n. the developmental stage of a *granulocyte (a type of white blood cell) between the *myeloblast and the *myelocyte. It has abundant cytoplasm that, with *Romanowsky stains, appears blue with reddish granules. Promyelocytes are normally found in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow but may appear in the blood in a variety of diseases. See also granulopoiesis.... promyelocyte

n. any muscle that causes pronation of the forearm and hand; for example, the pronator teres, a two-headed muscle arising from the humerus and ulna, close to the elbow, and inserted into the radius.... pronator

n. the first kidney tissue that develops in the embryo. It is not functional and soon disappears. Compare mesonephros; metanephros.... pronephros

n. (pl. pronuclei) the nucleus of either the ovum or spermatozoon after fertilization but before the fusion of nuclear material. The pronuclei are larger than the normal nucleus and have a diffuse appearance.... pronucleus

n. a group of substances in blood plasma that, in combination with *complement and magnesium ions, is capable of destroying certain bacteria and viruses. The properdin complex occurs naturally, rather than as the result of previous exposure to microorganisms, and its activity is not directed against any particular species. Compare antibody.... properdin

n. the first stage of *mitosis and of each division of *meiosis, in which the chromosomes become visible under the microscope. The first prophase of meiosis occurs in five stages (see leptotene; zygotene; pachytene; diplotene; diakinesis).... prophase

(proband) n. the first individual who is studied in an investigation of several related patients with an inherited or familial disorder.... propositus

n. a specialized sensory nerve ending (see receptor) that monitors internal changes in the body brought about by movement and muscular activity. Proprioceptors located in muscles and tendons transmit information that is used to coordinate muscular activity (see stretch receptor; tendon organ). See also mechanoreceptor.... proprioceptor

n. see rennin.... prorennin

n. see finasteride.... proscar

vb. to dissect a cadaver (or part of one) for anatomical demonstration. —prosection n. —prosector n.... prosect

n. the forebrain.... prosencephalon

(prosopo-) combining form denoting the face. Example: prosopodynia (pain in).... prosop

n. inability to recognize faces, either in person or in photographs, due to damage in the right occipito-temporal area of the brain. Causes include stroke and brain tumours.... prosopagnosia

a malignant tumour (*carcinoma) of the prostate gland, a common form of cancer in elderly men. In most men it progresses slowly over many years and gives symptoms similar to those of benign enlargement of the prostate (see prostate gland). Before it was possible to test for *prostate specific antigen (PSA), the tumour had often invaded locally, spread to regional lymph nodes, and metastasized to bone before clinical presentation. By checking elevated levels of PSA or *PCA3, prostate cancer can be detected 5–10 years before the tumour would present symptomatically. If the disease is confined to the prostate, the patient may be offered active surveillance or radical *prostatectomy, radical radiotherapy, or *brachytherapy; *cryotherapy or *HIFU are available in specialized centres. In elderly patients, it may be enough to monitor the tumour growth. If the disease is outside the prostate, androgen deprivation therapy may be used; this may be achieved by *gonadorelin analogues, *anti-androgens, surgical castration, or oestrogen therapy.... prostate cancer

(PSA) a protease enzyme produced by the glandular epithelium of the prostate. Its effect is to liquefy the semen within the ejaculate. Overall PSA has a half-life of 2–3 days. Increased quantities are secreted when the gland becomes enlarged or inflamed, and levels of PSA in the blood are significantly elevated in cancer of the prostate. Although there is no clear ‘cut-off’ level for normality, over 4 ng/ml in the blood is associated with a 20% risk of prostate cancer, even in patients with normal-feeling prostates on rectal examination. Age-specific PSA reference ranges are often used. Newer PSA assays can measure free PSA and compare it to the total PSA in the blood. Low free:total PSA ratios indicate a greater risk of prostate cancer and improve the discrimination between cancer and benign disease in men with a PSA in the range 4–10 ng/ml. PSA levels tend to be much higher in advanced prostate cancer and the rate of fall on treatment (e.g. after radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy) is a good prognostic indicator of response.... prostate specific antigen

(PIN) abnormal cells in the prostate that are not cancer, but may be associated with cancer within the prostate. Typically, PIN will be found in prostate biopsies taken because levels of *prostate specific antigen are elevated. Multifocal high-grade PIN (HGPIN) on a prostate biopsy may indicate that another set of prostate biopsies should be taken in the future.... prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia

n. an abnormal discharge of fluid from the prostate gland. This occurs in some patients with acute *prostatitis, who complain of a profuse discharge from the urethra. The discharge is usually thin and watery and is often sterile on culture. The discharge usually subsides when the underlying prostatitis is controlled.... prostatorrhoea

(prosthetic dentistry) n. the branch of dentistry concerned with the provision of *dentures, *bridges, and *implant-retained prostheses.... prosthodontics

n. one of a group of simple proteins that can be conjugated with nucleic acids to form nucleoproteins. Protamine sulphate is injected as an antidote to heparin overdosage in oral anticoagulant therapy.... protamine

n. a defect in colour vision in which affected individuals are insensitive to red light and confuse reds, yellows, and greens. Compare deuteranopia; tritanopia.... protanopia

n. a multi-enzyme complex in cells that breaks down proteins into short peptides.... proteasome

an enzyme that catalyses the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a specific amino acid residue of an intracellular protein (usually serine, threonine, or tyrosine), thereby affecting the biological activity of the protein. Protein kinase inhibitors are drugs that block the action of protein kinases in tumour cells and are used in the treatment of cancer. They include *sorafenib, *sunitinib, and *temsirolimus. See also tyrosine kinase inhibitor.... protein kinase

any one of a class of drugs used in the treatment of HIV infection and *AIDS. Used in combination with other *antiretroviral drugs, they act by inhibiting the action of protease, an enzyme produced by HIV that cleaves two precursor proteins into smaller fragments. These fragments are required for viral growth, infectivity, and replication. Protease inhibitors include atazanavir, indinavir, lopinavir and ritonavir (which are used in combination), saquinavir, and tipranavir. Side-effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and rashes; these drugs are also associated with hyperglycaemia and *lipodystrophy. See also boceprevir.... protease inhibitor

a digestive enzyme that causes the breakdown of protein. See endopeptidase; exopeptidase.... proteolytic enzyme

n. a product of the hydrolytic decomposition of protein.... proteose

n. a genus of rodlike Gram-negative flagellate highly motile bacteria common in the intestines and in decaying organic material. All species can decompose urea. Some species may cause disease in humans: P. vulgaris can cause urinary tract infections.... proteus

(PT) the time taken for blood clotting to occur in a sample of blood to which calcium and thromboplastin have been added. A prolonged PT (compared with a control sample) indicates a deficiency of *coagulation factors, which – with calcium and thromboplastin – are required for the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin to occur in the final stages of blood coagulation. Measurement of PT is used to control anticoagulant therapy (e.g. with warfarin). See INR.... prothrombin time

combining form denoting 1. first. 2. primitive; early. 3. a precursor.... proto

n. the short period in the cardiac cycle between the end of systole and the closure of the *aortic valve marking the start of diastole.... protodiastole

a drug that reduces gastric acid secretion by blocking the *proton pump. Proton-pump inhibitors include esomeprazole, lansoprazole, *omeprazole, pantoprazole, and rabeprazole sodium; they are used for treating gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer, and acid hypersecretion associated with *gastrinoma.... proton-pump inhibitor

a type of radiotherapy that uses a beam of protons. These charged particles are produced by a *cyclotron and penetrate only a predictable distance into the body depending on the proton energy. This is the radiotherapy treatment of choice for many childhood cancers, particularly brain and spinal tumours, as it can avoid more normal tissue and reduce the risk of long-term complications (including secondary malignancy) compared with photon (X-ray) beams.... proton therapy

adj. describing the ability to perceive only strong stimuli of pain, heat, etc. Compare epicritic.... protopathic

n. a bacterial or plant cell without its cell wall.... protoplast

the most common type of *porphyrin found in nature. It is a constituent of haemoglobin, myoglobin, most of the cytochromes, and the commoner chlorophylls.... protoporphyrin ix

n. a microorganism of the group *protozoa.... protozoan

n. the study of *protozoa.... protozoology

(otapostasis) external ears that stick out from the head more than average owing to absence of the antihelical fold of the *pinna. This is a normal variant but can be surgically corrected if desired using an *otoplasty operation. It was previously known as bat ears.... protruding ears

n. (in dentistry) 1. forward movement of the lower jaw. 2. a *malocclusion in which some of the teeth are further forward than usual. Compare retrusion.... protrusion

n. (in anatomy) a rounded projecting part, e.g. the projecting part of the chin (mental protuberance).... protuberance

n. a substance that is not itself a vitamin but can be converted to a vitamin in the body. An example is ?-carotene, which can be converted into vitamin A.... provitamin

see delusion by proxy.... proxy

(surrogate decision) a decision made with or on behalf of a person who lacks full legal capacity to *consent to or refuse medical treatment. See best interests; Gillick competence; parental responsibility; power of attorney; substituted judgment.... proxy decision

either of two large processes of the *sphenoid bone.... pterygoid process

programmes of lay education in the UK that aim to provide training in cardiac resuscitation up to and including *defibrillation. Together with programmes to increase the availability of *automated external defibrillators in public places (e.g. shops and railway stations), they recognize that the best outcomes from cardiac resuscitation are obtained with early defibrillation and good bystander basic life support.... public access defibrillation programmes

measures designed to limit the dose of harmful radiation to patients and workers. Medical exposure to radiation is governed in the UK by the Department of Health and Social Care under the Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposures) Regulations 2000 (IRMER). A guiding theme of protection is the ALARA principle (“as low as reasonably achievable”).... radiation protection

see anti-D immunoglobulin; haemolytic disease of the newborn.... rhesus prophylaxis

see prostatectomy.... robotic prostatectomy

surgical measures to palliate the worst effects of a tumour but with no aim to effect a cure.... salvage procedure

any of a group of surgical procedures for treating stress incontinence in women. See colposuspension; pubovaginal sling; tension-free vaginal tape.... sling procedure

an operation to correct a double uterus (see uterus didelphys). It has now largely been replaced by hysteroscopic techniques. [P. F. Strassman (1866–1938), German obstetrician and gynaecologist]... strassman procedure

1. a long slender downward-pointing spine projecting from the lower surface of the *temporal bone of the skull. It provides attachment for muscles and ligaments of the tongue and hyoid bone. 2. any of various other spiny projections; occurring, for example, at the lower ends of the ulna and radius.... styloid process

an operation in which a *shunt is created between the lateral *ventricle of the brain and the *cisterna magna to bypass a block of the cerebral *aqueduct and thus relieve *hydrocephalus. Originally this was achieved by means of an external indwelling catheter, but later techniques use an internal catheter, which reduces the risk of septic complications. [A. Torkildsen (20th century), Norwegian neurosurgeon]... torkildsen procedure

a *posteroanterior X-ray film to show the entire skull and mandible. [E. B. Towne (1883–1957), US otolaryngologist]... towne’s projection

(TURP) see resection.... transurethral resection of the prostate

(TUVP) a technique that vaporizes (rather than resects) prostate tissue; it is associated with less bleeding during the procedure. TUVP is used to treat *lower urinary tract symptoms thought to be due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (see prostate gland) or urinary retention.... transurethral vaporization of the prostate

the long projection from the base of the neural arch of a *vertebra.... transverse process

prolapse of the *fornix (vault) of the vagina, which occurs at the time of hysterectomy (vaginal or abdominal) when the superior vaginal support mechanism is disrupted. It can be surgically corrected (see sacrocolpopexy; uterosacral suspension).... vault prolapse

a *posteroanterior X-ray film to show the maxillae, maxillary sinuses, and zygomatic bones. [C. A. Waters (1888–1961), US radiologist]... waters’ projection