The rays are part of the electro-magnetic spectrum; their wavelengths are between 10?9 and 10? 13 metres; in behaviour and energy they are identical to the gamma rays emitted by radioactive isotopes. Diagnostic X-rays are generated in an evacuated tube containing an anode and cathode. Electrons striking the anode cause emission of X-rays of varying energy; the energy is largely dependent on the potential di?erence (kilovoltage) between anode and cathode. The altered tissue penetration at di?erent kilovoltages is used in radiographing di?erent regions, for example in breast radiography (25–40 kV) or chest radiography (120–150 kV). Most diagnostic examinations use kilovoltages between 60 and 120. The energy of X-rays enables them to pass through body tissues unless they make contact with the constituent atoms. Tissue attenuation varies with atomic structure, so that air-containing organs such as the lung o?er little attenuation, while material such as bone, with abundant calcium, will absorb the majority of incident X-rays. This results in an emerging X-ray pattern which corresponds to the structures in the region examined.
Radiography The recording of the resulting images is achieved in several ways, mostly depending on the use of materials which ?uoresce in response to X-rays. CONTRAST X-RAYS Many body organs are not shown by simple X-ray studies. This led to the development of contrast materials which make particular organs or structures wholly or partly opaque to X-rays. Thus, barium-sulphate preparations are largely used for examining the gastrointestinal tract: for example, barium swallow, barium meal, barium follow-through (or enteroclysis) and barium enema. Water-soluble iodine-containing contrast agents that ionise in solution have been developed for a range of other studies.
More recently a series of improved contrast molecules, chie?y non-ionising, has been developed, with fewer side-effects. They can, for example, safely be introduced into the spinal theca for myeloradiculography – contrast X-rays of the spinal cord. Using these agents, it is possible to show many organs and structures mostly by direct introduction, for example via a catheter (see CATHETERS). In urography, however, contrast medium injected intravenously is excreted by the kidneys which are outlined, together with ureters and bladder. A number of other more specialised contrast agents exist: for example, for cholecystography – radiological assessment of the gall-bladder. The use of contrast and the attendant techniques has greatly widened the range of radiology. IMAGE INTENSIFICATION The relative insensitivity of ?uorescent materials when used for observation of moving organs – for example, the oesophagus – has been overcome by the use of image intensi?cation. A faint ?uorographic image produced by X-rays leads to electron emission from a photo-cathode. By applying a high potential di?erence, the electrons are accelerated across an evacuated tube and are focused on to a small ?uorescent screen, giving a bright image. This is viewed by a TV camera and the image shown on a monitor and sometimes recorded on videotape or cine. TOMOGRAPHY X-ray images are two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional objects. Tomography (Greek tomos
– a slice) began with X-ray imaging produced by the linked movement of the X-ray tube and the cassette pivoting about a selected plane in the body: over- and underlying structures are blurred out, giving a more detailed image of a particular plane.
In 1975 Godfrey Houns?eld introduced COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT). This involves
(i) movement of an X-ray tube around the patient, with a narrow fan beam of X-rays; (ii) the corresponding use of sensitive detectors on the opposite side of the patient; (iii) computer analysis of the detector readings at each point on the rotation, with calculation of relative tissue attenuation at each point in the cross-sectional plant. This invention has enormously increased the ability to discriminate tissue composition, even without the use of contrast.
The tomographic e?ect – imaging of a particular plane – is achieved in many of the newer forms of imaging: ULTRASOUND, magnetic resonance imaging (see MRI) and some forms of nuclear medicine, in particular positron emission tomography (PET SCANNING). An alternative term for the production of images of a given plane is cross-sectional imaging.
While the production of X-ray and other images has been largely the responsibility of radiographers, the interpretation has been principally carried out by specialist doctors called radiologists. In addition they, and interested clinicians, have developed a number of procedures, such as arteriography (see ANGIOGRAPHY), which involve manipulative access for imaging – for example, selective coronary or renal arteriography.
The use of X-rays, ultrasound or computerised tomography to control the direction and position of needles has made possible guided biopsies (see BIOPSY) – for example, of pancreatic, pulmonary or bony lesions – and therapeutic procedures such as drainage of obstructed kidneys (percutaneous nephrostomy), or of abscesses. From these has grown a whole series of therapeutic procedures such as ANGIOPLASTY, STENT insertion and renal-stone track formation. This ?eld of interventional radiology has close a?nities with MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS).
Radiotherapy, or treatment by X-rays The two chief sources of the ionising radiations used in radiotherapy are the gamma rays of RADIUM and the penetrating X-rays generated by apparatus working at various voltages. For super?cial lesions, energies of around 40 kilovolts are used; but for deep-seated conditions, such as cancer of the internal organs, much higher voltages are required. X-ray machines are now in use which work at two million volts. Even higher voltages are now available through the development of the linear accelerator, which makes use of the frequency magnetron which is the basis of radar. The linear accelerator receives its name from the fact that it accelerates a beam of electrons down a straight tube, 3 metres in length, and in this process a voltage of eight million is attained. The use of these very high voltages has led to the development of a highly specialised technique which has been devised for the treatment of cancer and like diseases.
Protective measures are routinely taken to ensure that the patient’s normal tissue is not damaged during radiotherapy. The operators too have to take special precautions, including limits on the time they can work with the equipment in any one period of time.
The greatest value of radiotherapy is in the treatment of malignant disease. In many patients it can be used for the treatment of malignant growths which are not accessible to surgery, whilst in others it is used in conjunction with surgery and chemotherapy.... x-rays
Ionising radiation comprises X-RAYS, GAMMA RAYS and particle radiation. X-rays are part of the continuous electromagnetic-wave spectrum: this also includes gamma rays, infra-red radiation, ultraviolet light and visible light. They have a very short wavelength and very high frequency, and their ability to penetrate matter depends upon the electrical energy generating them. X-rays that are generated by 100,000 volts can pass through body tissue and are used to produce images – popularly known as X-rays. X-rays, generated at several million volts can destroy tissue and are used in RADIOTHERAPY for killing cancer cells. Gamma rays are similar to X-rays but are produced by the decay of radioactive materials. Particle radiation, which can be produced electrically or by radioactive decay, comprises parts of atoms which have mass as well as (usually) an electrical charge.
Non-ionising radiation includes ultraviolet light, radio waves, magnetic ?elds and ULTRASOUND. Magnetic ?elds are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound, which is inaudible high-frequency sound waves, and is used for both diagnoses and treatment in medicine.... radiation
Habitat: Pastures and waysides, especially near the sea-coast.
Features ? Stem erect, striate, tough, two to three feet high. Leaves alternate, lower lyrate-pinnatifid, stalked; upper bi-pinnatifid, sessile. Yellow flowers (July and August) florets of the ray smooth, of the disc hairy. Root consists of many long, thick fibres.Part used ? Herb.Action: Diaphoretic, detergent, antiseptic.
In coughs, colds, influenza, catarrhs, and for the relief of sciatica and rheumatic pains, wineglass doses of the ounce to pint decoction are taken as needed. Makes a good gargle, and is applied externally to ulcers and wounds. Ragwort ointment is prepared from the fresh herb and used for inflammation of the eyes.... ragwortAnxiety, DEPRESSION and POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) are common after rape: many victims are now given help by rape crisis counselling. A recent report suggests that in at least 50 per cent of reported rapes, the attacker was known to, or had been a friend of, the victim. The deliberate misuse of alcohol or drugs to reduce a potential victim’s resistance seems to be increasing (see DRUG ASSISTED RAPE; FLUNITRAZEPAM.)... rape
Habitat: Woods and heaths ; dry, gravelly or stony ground. Also cultivated in gardens. Features ? Stem erect, freely branched, three or four feet high, covered with small,
straight, slender prickles. Leaves stalked, pinnate, with two pairs of ovate leaflets andlarger terminal leaflet, rounded base, doubly serrate, pale green above, grey-whitedown beneath, about three inches long by two inches broad. Small white, pendulousflowers (May or June) in simple clusters. Astringent to the taste.Part used ? Leaves.Action: Astringent, stimulant.
The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion is widely used as a mouth-wash and gargle, and for the cleansing of wounds and ulcers. Frequently combined with Slippery Elm as a poultice. With a little Ginger and Pennyroyal it is recommended for the stomach and bowel disorders of children.Thomson and his immediate successors strongly advised the free drinking of the Raspberry leaves infusion for several months before confinement as an aid to parturition, and it is still much in demand for this purpose.... raspberryA radical is a group of atoms which can combine in the same way as single atoms to make a molecule. Free means uncombined. A free radical is a state in which a radical can exist before it combines – an incomplete molecule containing oxygen which has an uneven electrical charge. High energy oxygen atoms are known to form atheroma.
As well as being substances that take part in a process of metabolism, free radicals can be found in industrial fumes and cigarette smoke. They are oxidants and have an anti-bacterial effect. But their activity is not confined to bacteria alone. When produced in large amounts as in inflammation and infection, they may have a damaging effect upon the lining of blood vessels and other tissues. An excess is produced in ischaemic heart disease. They have been shown to be involved in jet lag, Alzheimer’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, thrombosis, heart failure, cancer, irradiation sickness and a weak immune system. Damaging to the DNA, they are probably the greatest single cause of ill health. They hasten the ageing process. Vitamins A, C, E, being antioxidants and the mineral Selenium stimulate certain enzyme systems to limit damage done by these destructive elements.
Losing weight is believed to generate free radicals – a metabolic side-effect of dieting. See: ANTIOXIDANTS. ... free radicals
As many body tissues are radiolucent, some X-ray imaging procedures require the introduction of radiopaque substances into the body to make organs stand out clearly.... radiopaque
On exposure to cold, the digits turn white due to lack of blood. As sluggish blood flow returns, the digits become blue; when they are warmed and normal blood flow returns, they turn red. During an attack, there is often tingling, numbness, or a burning feeling in the affected fingers or toes. In rare cases, the artery walls gradually thicken, permanently reducing blood flow. Eventually painful ulceration or even gangrene may develop at the tips of the affected digits.
Diagnosis is made from the patient’s history. Treatment involves keeping the hands and feet as warm as possible. Vasodilator drugs or calcium channel blockers may be helpful in severe cases. (See also Raynaud’s phenomenon.)... raynaud’s disease
Habitat: Native to Europe and West Asia.
English: Asparagus, Sparrow grass.Ayurvedic: Shataavari, Vari, Shatviryaa, Shatmuuli, Shatpadi, Bhiru, Naaraayani, Bahusutaa, Atirasaa.Unani: Haliyun.Family: Asparagaceae.Habitat: Found wild in tropical and subtropical parts of India, including the Andamans and ascending in the Himalayas to 1,500 m.
English: Indian asparagus.Ayurvedic: Shataavari, Shatmuuli, Atirasaa, Bahusutaa, Shatpadi, Shatviryaa, Bhiru, Indivari, Vari. (Substitute for Medaa, Mahaamedaa.)Unani: Sataavar.Siddha/Tamil: Thanneervittan kizhangu, Sataavari Kizhangu.Action: Used as a galactagogue and for disorders of female genitourinary tract; as a styptic and ulcer-healing agent; as an intestinal disinfectant and astringent in diarrhoea; as a nervine tonic, and in sexual debility for spermatogenesis.
Along with other therapeutic applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of the tuberous root in gout, puerperal diseases, lactic disorders, haematuria, bleeding disorders and also recommends it for hyperacidity.The plant contains saponins—sha- tavarins I-IV. Shatavarin IV is a glycoside of sarsasapogenin. The saponin in doses of 20-500 mcg/ml produces a special blockade of syntocinon (oxy- tocin)-induced contraction of rat, guinea-pig and rabbit uteri in vitro and in situ. It also blocks the uterine spontaneous motility.The dried root yields sitosterol; 4,6- dihydroxy-2-O-(2' hydroxyisobutyl) benzaldehyde and undecanyl cetano- ate, and contains a large amount of saccharine matter, mucilage and miner- als—Ca (0.172), Cu (0.033), Na (14.60), K (8.32), Mg (0.169), Mn (0.0074), Ni (0.105) and Zn (0.072) mg/g(dry weight).The root was found to reduce gastric emptying time comparable to that of metoclopramide. (J Postgrad Med, 1990, 36(2), 91-94).The root extracts exhibited antiallergic activity in animal studies.The root, when fed orally, acted as immunomodulator against induced sepsis and peritonitis in rats and mice.... asparagus racemosusHabitat: Sub-Himalayan tracts from Ravi eastwards, ascending to 1,000 m. in the Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Central and South India.
Ayurvedic: Ashmantaka, Kanchini.Unani: Kachnaar.Folk: Aapataa (Maharashtra), Kachnaala.Action: Bark—highly astringent, anti-inflammatory (used in glandular inflammations, skin diseases, ulcers), cholagogue. Leaves—anthelmintic; with onion for diarrhoea. Flowers—used in haemorrhages, piles; also in cough. Seed—antibacterial.
Octacosane, beta-amyrin and beta- sitosterol have been isolated from the bark. EtOH (50%) extract of seeds exhibited anticancer activity.... bauhinia racemosaHabitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan up to at 3,000-4,000 m.
English: Black Cohosh Root, Black Snake Root.Folk: Cohosh, Jiuenti (Punjab).Action: Sedative, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, diuretic, emmenagogue. Used in homoeopathy for rheumatic diseases of nervous, hysterical women, suffering from uterine affections; also for locomotor ataxia.
Key application: In climacteric (menopausal), neurovegetative ailments, premenstrual discomfort and dysmenorrhoea. (German Commission E, ESCOP.)The rhizome contains triterpene gly- cosides (including actein, cimigoside, cimifugine and racemoside; isofla- ones (including formononetin; isofer- ulic acid; volatile oil, tannin.Pharmacological studies have shown that the menthol extract binds to oestrogen receptors in vitro and in rat uteri; this activity is thought to be due to the presence of formononetin. Racemoside exhibited antiulcer activity in mice. Isoferulic acid lowered body temperature in rats.The rhizome is hypotensive in animals; a central nervous system depressant and antispasmodic in mice; causes peripheral vasodilation in human. Also exhibits anti-inflammatory (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia) and hy- poglycaemic activity.Actein has been studied for use in treating peripheral arterial disease. (Expanded Commission E Monographs.)Clinically, the rhizome and root constituents of Black Cohosh does not seem to affect hormonal levels, such as estradiol, LH, FSH and pro- lactin. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Cimicifuga foetida L. root is used in bronchial and rheumatic diseases. Aqueous EtOH extract is used in cosmetic preparations for protecting skin; also used for preventing oral diseases and bad breath.White Cohosh, used for urinogen- ital disorders, is equated with Actea pachypoda, synonym A. alba, A. rubra. Blue Cohosh has been identified as Caulophyllum thalictroides. It is toxic and abortifacient.... cimicifuga racemosaHabitat: Throughout India. Grows wild in forests and hills. Often found around subterranean water streams.
English: Cluster Fig, Country Fig.Ayurvedic: Udumbara, Sadaaphala, Hema-daudhaka, Jantuphala, Yagyaanga.Unani: Anjir-e-Aadam, Anjir-e- Ahmak, Gular.Siddha/Tamil: Atthi.Action: Astringent and antiseptic; used in threatened abortions, menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, urinary disorders, skin diseases, swellings, boils, haemorrhages. Unripe fruits—astringent, carminative, digestive, stomachic; used in diarrhoea, dyspepsia, dysentery, menorrhagia and haemorrhages. Ripe fruits—antiemetic, also
used in haemoptysis. Root and fruit—hypoglycaemic. Bark— decoction is used in skin diseases, inflammations, boils and ulcers.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the use of the bark in lipid disorders and obesity.Leaves and fruit contain gluacol. The fruit also contains beta-sitosterol, lupeol acetate, friedelin, higher hydrocarbons and other phytosterols.Petroleum ether extract of the stem bark significantly reduced blood sugar level of rats with streptozotocin- induced diabetes. It completely inhibited glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase from rat liver. Extracts of fruit and latex did not show any significant effect on blood sugar level of diabetic rats, they inhibited only glucose-6- phosphate but not arginase from rat liver.An alcoholic extract of the bark has been found to be very effective in reducing blood sugar in alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats. It helped in improving the damaged beta cells of islets of Langerhans, thus exerting permanent blood sugar lowering effect.The ethanolic extract of seeds also showed hypoglycaemic activity.Lignin, the main fiber constituent of the fruit, prevented the rise in serum cholesterol levels of some extent. Fresh whole fruits, used as a source of dietary fibre, exhibited more hypoc- holesterolemic activity than pure cellulose.Dosage: Bark—20-30 g for decoction. (API Vol. I.)... ficus racemosaThe improvement in the infant mortality rate has occurred mainly in the period from the second month of life. There has been much less improvement in the neonatal mortality rate – that is, the number of infants dying during the ?rst four weeks of life, expressed as a proportion of every 1,000 live births. During the ?rst week of life the main causes of death are asphyxia, prematurity, birth injuries and congenital abnormalities. After the ?rst week the main cause of death is infection.
Social conditions also play an important role in infant mortality. In England and Wales the infant mortality rate in 1930–32 was: Social Class I (professional), 32·7; Social Class III (skilled workers), 57·6; Social Class V (unskilled workers), 77·1. Many factors come into play in producing these social variations, but overcrowding is undoubtedly one of the most important.
1838–9 146 1950–52 30 1851–60 154 1960–62 22 1900–02 142 1970–72 18 1910–12 110 1980–82 12 1920–22 82 1990–92 7 1930–32 67 1996 6·2 1940–42 59 1999 5.8 2000 5.6
It is thus evident that for a reduction of the infant mortality rate to the minimum ?gure, the following conditions must be met. Mothers and potential mothers must be housed adequately in healthy surroundings, particularly with regard to safe water supplies and sewage disposal. The pregnant and nursing mother must be ensured an adequate diet. E?ective antenatal supervision must be available to every mother, as well as skilled supervision during labour (see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR). The newborn infant must be adequately nursed and fed and mothers encouraged to breast feed. Environmental and public-health measures must be taken to ensure adequate housing, a clean milk supply and full availability of medical care including such protective measures as IMMUNISATION against diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis and whooping-cough. (See also PERINATAL MORTALITY.)... infant mortality rate (imr)
Habitat: Temperate and Alpine Himalayas from Chitral to Nepal at 1,500-4,200 m.
English: Elecampane.Ayurvedic: Pushkaramuula, Pushkara, Paushkara, Padmapatra, Kaashmira, Kushtha-bheda.Action: Antispasmodic, stomachic, antihistaminic, expectorant, anticatarrhal. Used for asthma, chronic bronchitis and pulmonary disorders.
Key application: Inula helenium— as expectorant. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Roots are used in Kashmir as adulterant of Saussurea lappa.The root contains a volatile oil, about 1-4%; major constituents being in- ulin (10.0) and sesquiterpene lactones, mainly alantolactone, isoalantolactone and their dihydro derivatives. Alan- tolactone and others in the mixture known as helenalin (sesquiterpene lactones) are toxic constituents of the root.Alantolactone is anti-inflammatory in animals and has been shown to stimulate the immune system. It is also hypotensive and anthelmintic in animals; antibacterial and antifungal in vitro It irritates mucous membranes. It is used as an anthelmintic in Europe and UK.Plant extract showed potent antispasmodic effect against bronchial spasm induced by histamine and various plant pollens.The root, when combined with Commiphora mukul gum-resin, acts as a hypolipidaemic agent, exhibits beta- blocking activity and beneficial effect in myocardial ischaemia.The roots also exhibit sedative and blood pressure lowering activity.The European species is equated with Inula helenium Linn.Dosage: Root—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. IV.)... inula racemosaHabitat: Extensively cultivated all over India.
English: Greengram, Golden Gram.Ayurvedic: Mudga, Mungalya.Unani: Moong.Siddha/Tamil: Pattishai-payaru.Action: Used as a pulse. Soup is given as a diet to patients of enlarged liver and spleen, and after recovery from acute illness. A poultice of it is used for checking secretion of milk and reducing distention of the mammary glands.... phaseolus radiatus
Rachael, Racheal, Rachelanne, Rachelce, Rachele, Racheli, Rachell, Rachelle, Rachil, Raechel, Raechell, Raychel, Raychelle, Rashell, Rashelle, Raychel, Rechell, Rakel... rachel
Habitat: Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
English: Padri tree.Siddha/Tamil: Vedanguruni, Pathiri.Folk: Paadiri. Kharsing, Kadashing, Bairsinge (Maharashtra).Action: Plant—antiseptic. Resin— used for the treatment of skin diseases. Rootbark—bitter, astringent; used as substitute for Stereospermumpersonatum (Hassk.) D. Chatterjee and S. suaveolens DC. (Trumpet-Flower, Yellow Snake tree, also known as Padri).
The leaves gave flavonoids, dinatin and its glycoside. Roots yielded O- acetyl oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and a red pigment, radermachol.... radermachera xylocarpaRadeya, Radhiya, Radhiyah, Radhia, Radhiah, Radhea, Radheah... radeyah
Radilla, Radinka, Radmila, Redmilla, Radilu... radmilla
Raekah, Rayka, Raika, Raykah, Raikah... raeka
Rafigah, Rafeega, Rafeegah, Rafyga, Rafygah... rafiga
Ragnal, Ragnalle, Ragnalla, Ragnale, Ragnala, Ragnallia, Ragnallea... ragnall
Ragnarah, Ragnarra, Ragnaria, Ragnarea, Ragnari, Ragnarie, Ragnary, Ragnarey, Ragnaree... ragnara
Ragnfride, Ragnfrida, Ragna, Ragnfryd, Ragnfryde, Ragnfryda, Ragni, Ragnie, Ragny, Ragney, Ragnee, Ragnea... ragnfrid
Ragnild, Ragnhilda, Ragnhilde, Ragnilda, Ranillda, Renild, Renilda, Renilde, Reynilda, Reynilde, Ragnilde... ragnhild
Raenah, Raene, Rainah, Raine, Rainee, Rainey, Rainelle, Rainy, Reina, Reinella, Reinelle, Reinette, Reyna, Reynalda, Reynelle, Reyney, Reine, Ranee, Reia... raina
Raileigh, Railey, Raley, Rawleigh, Rawley, Raly, Rali, Ralie, Ralee, Rawli, Rawlie, Rawlee, Rawly... raleigh
Ramirah, Rameera, Rameerah, Rameira, Ramiera, Ramyrah, Ramyra, Rameirah, Ramierah, Rameara, Ramearah... ramira
Ramyah, Ramiya, Ramiyah, Ramia, Ramiah... ramya
Ranah, Ra’naa, Rand, Raniyah, Ranarauna, Ranaraunaa, Raunaa... rana
Ranalt, Rathnait, Ranaite, Rathnaite, Ranalta... ranait
Randa, Randee, Randelle, Randene, Randie, Randy, Randey, Randilyn, Randilynn, Randilynne... randi
Habitat: Assam, Naga and Khasi Hills, Travancore and the Andamans.
English: Common Emetic Nut.Ayurvedic: Madana, Chhardana, Pindi, Shalayaka, Vishapushpaka.Unani: Mainphal, Jauz-ul-Qai.Siddha/Tamil: Marukkaaraikai, Madkarai.Folk: Mainphal.Action: Fruit—nervine, calmative, antispasmodic, emetic, anthelmintic, abortifacient. Used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the dried fruit in chlorosis, common cold, rhinitis and obstinate skin diseases.The activity of the drug is attributed to the presence of saponins which occur to the extent of 2-3% in fresh fruits and about 10% in dried whole fruit. The saponins are concentrated mostly in the pulp. A mixture of two saponins, viz. randialic or neutral saponin and randialic acid or acid saponin has been isolated from the pulp. On complete hydrolysis both the saponins yield oleanolic acid as sapogenin. Ursosaponin, isolated from the ethanolic extract of the dried whole fruit, gave ursolic acid and glucose. Randianin, isolated from the fruit, gave a haemolytic triterpe- noid saponin.In experimental animals, the drug caused haemolysis both in vitro and in vivo. Crude saponin fraction showed haemolytic, molluscidal and immuno- stimulating activities.Oleanolic acid 3-glucoside, isolated from the seed, exhibited anti-arthritic activity in exudative and proliferative phases of inflammation in rats.Dosage: Fruit—0.5-1.0 g powder for decoction, 3-6 g for induction vomiting. (API, Vol. I.)... randia dumetorumHabitat: Southern, Central and Eastern India, including Assam and Sikkim.
Ayurvedic: Pindaalu, Pinditaka.Siddha/Tamil: Wagatta, Perunkarai.Folk: Mainphal, Pindaar, Pendraa, Pendhar.Action: Unripe fruit—astringent. Root—diuretic; used for biliousness, diarrhoea and dysentery
Unripe fruits are roasted and used as a remedy for dysentery and diarrhoea. The root, boiled in purified butter, is also prescribed for dysentery and diarrhoea.The fruits, like those of Randia spinosa, contain a toxic saponin of oleanolic acid. They also contain leu- cocyanidin and mannitol. The flowers yield an essential oil similar to Gardenia oil.... randia uliginosaRania, Ranice, Ranique, Ranit, Ranica, Ranita, Ranite, Ranith, Ranitta, Raanee, Rane, Ranie... rani
Habitat: The Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.
English: Corn Buttercup.Folk: Chambul (Punjab). Gager- kanda (Kashmir).Action: Used in intermittent fevers, asthma and gout.
The active principle of the herb is protoanemonin (0.54%) and its glyco- sidic precursor, ranunculin. The herb yields hydrocyanic acid in very small amounts.The leaves contain the antifungal lactone protoanemonin which inhibited growth of Epidermophyton floccosum and the yeast Rhodotorula glutinis.... ranunculus arvensisHabitat: The plains of northern India, and the warm valleys of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam.
English: Blister Buttercup, Celery- leaved Crowfoot.Ayurvedic: Kaandira, Kaandakatu- ka, Naasaa-samvedana, Toyavalli, Sukaandaka.Folk: Jal-dhaniyaa.Action: Fresh Plant—highly acrid, rubefacient, vesicant and toxic; causes inflammation of the digestive tract. Used after drying or as a homoeopathic medicine for skin diseases.
The plant contains anemonin, pro- toanemonin, ranunculine, serotonin and other tryptamine derivatives.Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) is a potent vaso-constrictor. Pro- toanemonin possesses strong antibacterial, antiviral, cytopathogenic and vermicidal properties, and is effective against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria, similar to penicillic acid. It inhibits the growth of E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida al- bicans. It inactivates in vitro diptheria toxin.Dosage: Whole plant—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... ranunculus sceleratusHabitat: Kashmir to Sikkim.
English: Water Crowfoot, Water Fennel.Ayurvedic: Kaandira (var.).Folk: Tohlab (Kashmir).Action: Herb—used in intermittent fevers, rheumatism and asthma.
Ranunculus muricatus Linn. (Punjab and Kashmir) is used in intermittent fevers, gout and asthma in Europe. The herb is rubefacient, vesicant and narcotic.... ranunculus trichophyllusRacquel, Racquell, Raquela, Raquelle, Roquel, Roquela, Rakel, Rakell... raquel
Rasheda, Rasheeda, Rasheedah, Rasheida, Rashidah, Rashyda, Rachida, Raashida, Raashidah... rashida
Habitat: Cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
English: Radish.Ayurvedic: Muulaka, Laghu- muulaka, Muulakapotikaa, Visra, Shaaleya, Marusambhava. Pods— Sungraa, Singri, Mungraa.Unani: Muuli, Turb Fajal.Siddha/Tamil: Mullangi.Action: Radish—preparations are used in liver, gallbladder and urinary complaints. Green leaves— diuretic and carminative. Seeds— diuretic, purgative, expectorant.
A decoction of dry radish is given orally in piles. Extract of the dry root is given for hiccough, influenza, dysentery, colic and urinary troubles.Key application: In peptic disorders, especially those related to dyskinesia of the bile ducts; and in catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract. (German Commission E.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the juice of the whole plant in sinusitis; juice of the root in diseases of the throat and sinusitis; and the seed in amenorrhoea, cough and dyspnoea.The fleshy root and seeds contain trans-4-methyl-thiobutenyl isothio- cyanate glucoside (the pungent principle), cyanidin-5-glucoside-3-sophoro- side, pelargonidin diglycoside, cyani- din diglycoside, 5-methyl-L-cysteine- sulphoxide (methiin), steroidal sa- pogenins and sulphorophene.The enzymes present in the radish are phosphatase, catalase, sucrase, amylase, alcohol dehydrogenase and pyruvic carboxylase.Radish contains caffeic acid and fer- ulic acid which exhibit hepatoprotec- tive and choleretic properties. It contains choline which prevents deposition of fat in liver. Amino acids, or- nithine, citrulline, arginine, glutamic acid and asparatic acid remove toxins from the body and urea acumulation.Radish is a good source of ascorbic acid (15-40 mg/100 g), trace elements include aluminium, barium, lithium, manganese, silicon, titanium, also iodine (upto 18 mcg/100 g) and ascor- bigen.Roots, leaves, flowers and pods are active against Gram-positive bacteria.The seeds are reported to contain a broad spectrum antibiotic, machro- lysin, specific against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Raphanin, extracted from the seeds, is active against Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria.A purified basic protein, homologous to nonspecific lipid transfer proteins, from seeds showed antifungal activity.Raphanus caudatus Linn., synonym R. sativus var. caudatus, is known as Rat-Tail Radish.A native to Java, it is cultivated in northern and western India. The root is not used; pods, purple or violet in colour, are consumed for properties attributed to Raphanus sp. These are known as Mungraa or Sungraa.Dosage: Whole plant-20-40 ml juice; root—15-30 ml juice. (API, Vol. II.) Seed—1-3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... raphanus sativusPhysiological changes, such as a fall in temperature and blood pressure, take place just before sleep and continue during the early stages of NREM sleep. There is an intrinsic rhythm of sleep which in most subjects has a periodicity of around 25 hours. This can be modi?ed by external factors to bring it into line with the 24-hour day. Two peaks of a tendency to sleep have been identi?ed, and these usually occur between around 14.00–18.00 hours, and 02.00–06.00 hours. There are, however, di?erences according to age, in that, for instance, infants sleep for most of the 24 hours; during adolescence there is also an increase in the duration of sleep. Sleep requirements fall later in life, but there are wide genetic di?erences in the amount of sleep that people require and also the time at which they fall asleep most readily.
The internal clock can be disturbed by a variety of external factors which include irregular sleeping habits due, for instance, to shift work or jet lag. Sleep is also more likely to occur after physical exertion, reading and social activity. The duration and intensity of exposure to light can also modify sleep profoundly. Light promotes wakefulness and is the main factor that adjusts the 25-hour internal rhythm to the 24hour daily cycle. Neural connections from the retina of the EYE act on an area in the brain called the supra-chiasmatic nucleus which stimulates the pineal gland which produces MELATONIN. This is thought to trigger the range of neurological and metabolic processes that characterise sleep.... rapid-eye-movement (rem) sleep
Ratie, Ratea, Ratee, Raty, Ratey... rati
Habitat: Abundant in moist and warm regions of West Bengal, particularly in 24 Parganas and Howrah, and Kerala (as a weed).
Folk: Badaa Chaand.Action: Root—sedative, hypotensive. Plant juice, mixed with castor oil, is applied to skin diseases and to destroy parasites.
The plant contains a number of alkaloids, including rauvolscine, aj- malicine, canescine, reserpine, pseu- doyohimbine; yohimbine, corynan- thene, raunescine, iso-raunescine and recanescine.The major alkaloid is rauwolscine (alpha-yohimbine), present in the root bark (0.1%), stem bark (0.2%) and leaves (0.5%).The roots are often used as a substitute or adulterant of those of R. serpentina, though the reserpine content of the dried root was found to be comparatively low (0.03-0.05%).Family: Linaceae.Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim; commonly grown in gardens.
English: Winter-Flax, Yellow Flax.Ayurvedic: Baasanti.Folk: Abai (Maharashtra).Action: Plant—used for the treatment of paralysis in Bihar. The crushed leaves and stems are applied to wounds infested with maggots.... rauvolfia tetraphylla
Raeann, Raeanna, Raeanne, Rayana, Rayanna, Rayanne, Rayane, Raeane, Raeana, Raiann, Raiane, Raianne, Raianna, Raiana... rayann
Habitat: The sub-Himalayas tract from Punjab to Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Western Ghats and the Andamans.
English: Rauvolfia root, Serpentina Root, Indian Snakeroot.Ayurvedic: Sarpagandhaa of Ayurvedic texts was not the Sarpagandhaa of modern medicine. (Sarpagandhaa was equated with Naakuli, Sarpach- hatrikaa and Varshaasu Chha- trikaaraa. Sarpagandhaa and Sarpasugandhaa were synonyms of Naakuli.)Folk: Chhotaa Chaand.Action: Root—decoction is employed to increase uterine contractions and for expulsion of foetus in difficult cases. The total alkaloidal extract of the root induces bradycardia, hypotension, sedation. It finds application in hypochondria, neuropsychi- atric disorders, psychosis and schizophrenia.
Key application: In mild, essential hypertension (borderline hypertension, especially with elevated tension of the sympathetic nervous system, for example, sinus tachycardia, anxiety, tension and psychomotor irritation, when dietetic measures alone are not sufficient. (German Commission E.)(Average daily dose: 600 mg drug corresponding to 6 mg total alkaloid.) Treatment is usually administered with a diuretic to prevent fluid retention which may develop if Rauvolfia root is given alone. (WHO.) Contraindicated in depression, bleeding disorders, gastric and duodenal ulcers. (Sharon M. Herr.) Also contraindicated in pregnancy, since it has both teratogenic and abortifacient potential. (Francis Brinker.)The root and root bark are rich in alkaloids, the most important being reserpine, others, around 30, which include ajmaline, ajmalicine (raubasine), ajmalicine, yohimbine, coryanthine, iso-ajmaline, neo-ajmaline, papaver- ine, raubasine, rauwolscine, rescin- namine, reserpine, sarpagine, serpentine, serpentinine, serpinine and de- serpidine.Reserpine is hypotensive and tranquilizer, used for certain forms of mental disorders. Ajmalicine (raubasine) and rescinnamine are also hypoten- sive and tranquilizer. Deserpidine is sedative, as well as hypotensive. Aj- maline exhibits antiarrhythmic activity.A number of Rauvolfia species are found in India: R. beddomei Hook. f.; R. densiflora Benth ex Hook. f. (Himalayas, Khasi and Aka Hills; Western and Eastern Ghats); R. micrantha Hook. f; known as Malabar Rauvolfia, (Kerala, up to an altitude of 300 m)The roots of R. beddomei contain ajmalicine, sarpagine and serpentine, but no reserpine. R. densiflora yielded 0.51% of total alkaloids (reserpine 0.01%). R. micrantha gave ajmalicine, raunamine, reserpiline, sarpagine, neosarpagine, in addition to reserpine.(In classical Ayurvedic texts, Nakuli and Gandha-naakuli were included in compound formulations for mental diseases.)... rauvolfia serpentinaSymptoms The condition is most commonly con?ned to the occurrence of ‘dead ?ngers’ – the ?ngers (or the toes, ears, or nose) becoming white, numb, and waxy-looking. This condition may last for some minutes, or may not pass o? for several hours, or even for a day or two.
Treatment People who are subject to these attacks should be careful in winter to protect the feet and hands from cold, and should always use warm water when washing the hands. In addition, the whole body should be kept warm, as spasm of the arterioles in the feet and hands may be induced by chilling of the body. Su?erers should not smoke. VASODILATORS are helpful, especially the calcium antagonists. In all patients who do not respond to such medical treatment, surgery should be considered in the form of sympathectomy: i.e. cutting of the sympathetic nerves to the affected part. This results in dilatation of the arterioles and hence an improved blood supply. This operation is more successful in the case of the feet than in the case of the hands.... raynaud’s disease
Razia, Razi, Raziela, Raziella, Razili, Raziella, Raziel, Raziele, Razie, Razee... raziah
Habitat: Throughout North and eastern India, extending southwards to Peninsular India.
English: Lodh tree, Sapphire BerryAyurvedic: Lodhra, Rodhra, Shaavara., Sthulavalkal, Trita, Pattikaa Lodhra, Shaabara Lodhra.Unani: Lodh Pathaani.Siddha/Tamil: Vellilethi, Velli- lothram.Action: Bark—used as specific remedy for uterine complaints, vaginal diseases and menstrual disorders; menorrhagia, leucorrhoea (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India); also used in diarrhoea, dysentery, vaginal ulcers, inflammatory affections and liver disorders.
The bark gave colloturine, harman (loturine) and loturidine. Stem bark gave proanthocyanidin-3-monogluco- furanosides of 7-O-methyl-and 4'-O- methyl-leucopelargonidin. Betulinic, oleanolic, acetyl oleanolic and ellagic acids are reported from the plant.Glycosides, isolated from the ethanolic extract of the stem bark, are highly astringent and are reported to be responsible for the medicinal properties of the bark.The bark extracts have been reported to reduce the frequency and intensity of the contractions in vitro of both pregnant and non-pregnant uteri of animals. A fraction from the bark, besides showing action on uteri, was spasmogenic on various parts of the gastrointestinal tract and could be antagonized by atropine.The bark extracts were found to inhibit the growth of E. coli, Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus, and enteric and dysenteric groups of organisms.Dosage: Stem bark—3-5 g powder; 20-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)S. laurina Wall., synonym S. spica- ta Roxb. (North and East Idia, Western and Eastern Ghats); S. ramosis- sima Wall. (the temperate Himalayas from Garhwal to Bhutan); S. sumuntia Buch.-Ham. (Nepal to Bhutan) are also equated with Lodhra.The powdered bark is used in folk medicine for biliousness, haemorrhages, diarrhoea, dysentery and genitourinary diseases.Symplocos theaefolia Buch-Ham. ex D. Don (the Eastern Himalayas from Nepal to Bhutan and in the Khasi Hills at altitudes between 1,200 and 2,500 m) is known as Kharanl in Nepal and Dieng-pei or Dieng-twe-pe in khasi.The ethanolic extract of leaves showed hypoglycaemic activity in rats and anticancer activity against Friend- virus-leukaemia (solid) in mice. The extract of the leaves and of stems showed activity against human epider- moid carcinoma of the nasopharynx in tissue-culture.The Wealth of India equated S. laurina with Lodh Bholica (Bengal) and S. sumuntia with Pathaani Lodh.The wood of Symplocos phyllocalyx C. B. Clarke is known as Chandan and Laal-chandan. It should not be confused with Santalum album or Ptero- carpus santalinus.... symplocos racemosaUltraviolet lamps produce UVR and are used to tan skin but, because of the risk of producing skin cancer (see SKIN, DISEASES OF), the lamps must be used with great caution.... ultraviolet rays (uvr)
Habitat: All over India, except West Bengal and eastwards.
Unani: Baadaavard, Al-baavard, Shukaayi.Folk: Bhu-dandi, Sukaayi (Maharashtra).Action: Plant—deobstruent, aperient, febrifugal, styptic. Used for disorders of the liver. The mucilage is used in coughs.
The plant yielded a glucoside pro- cumbenin A which yields an aglycone procumbenidine and glucose on hydrolysis. Fructose, surcose, lactose and maltose are also present in the plant.Shukaayi of Unani medicine is also known as Al-shukaayaa, Al-shaukat- ul-arabia and Arabian Thorn. The fruit and root are used in Unani medicine in chronic fevers and diseases of liver and intestines.Baadaavard has also been equated with Tricholepisprocumbens Wight and Carduus bendictus. Tricholepis sp. are known as Brahmadandi in Ayurvedic medicine. Carduus nutans Linn. is known as Gul-Baadaavard in Kashmir and is used as febrifuge.... volutarella ramosaAction: cholagogue, digestive, hepatic.
Uses: Indigestion. To increase bile production in liver disorders and to increase intestinal peristalsis. Dyskinesias. Gall bladder disorders. Constipation. Dyspepsia.
Preparations: Powder. 230mg capsules; 3 capsules midday and evening 15 minutes before meals. (Arkocaps)
Freshly pressed Juice: half-1 cup daily. If too pungent mix with a little Slippery Elm powder. ... black radish
Radioactive material (usually artificial radioisotopes) contained in wires, small tubes, or seeds is then implanted into or near the diseased tissue under general anaesthesia. The material is left in place for variable amounts of time depending on the radioactive substance and the tumour being treated. (See also intracavitary therapy; radiotherapy.)... interstitial radiotherapy
Alternatives. Teas: Alfalfa, Angelica leaves, Boneset, Catnep, Chamomile, Coltsfoot, Comfrey leaves, Dandelion leaves, Hyssop, Lemon Balm, Lime flowers, Milk Thistle, Mullein, White Horehound, Red Clover flowers, Sage, Violet leaves, Umeboshi tea.
Tablets/capsules. Chamomile, Echinacea, Iceland Moss, Irish Moss, Liquorice, Lobelia.
Powders. Formula. Equal parts: Echinacea, Barberry bark, Elecampane root. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Formula. Tinctures. Echinacea 2; Sarsaparilla 1; Fringe Tree half; Liquorice quarter. Mix. 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily. ... acid rain sickness
Constituents: asparagine, B vitamins, Vitamin C, sinigrin and other glucosinolates, resin.
Action: efficient alternative to Cayenne pepper, Diuretic, urinary antispetic, diaphoretic, carminative; liver, spleen and pancreatic stimulant. Bacteriostatic action on Gram-negative bacilli. (Rudat K.D. (1957) Journal Hyg. Epidem. Microbiol. Immunol. Prague 1213)
To raise vital force in the elderly. Antibiotic. Circulatory stimulant with warming effect. Digestive aid. Anti-thyroid.
Uses: Feeble circulation, hypothermia, hyperthyroidism, frostbite, chilblains, absence of stomach acid in the elderly, dropsy following fevers, proteinuria (albuminuria), to arrest vaginal discharge. Hoarseness (1 teaspoon juice in honey). Rheumatic joints (poultice). Common cold, influenza and early stages of fever: cup of Horse Radish tea every 2-3 hours. Combine with Juniper berries (equal parts) for dropsy and kidney stone. Purulent wounds: cold decoction used as a lotion.
Preparations: Average dose: 1-2 grams; thrice daily.
Tea: 1 teaspoon grated fresh root in each cup boiling water; infuse 20 minutes. Half-1 cup in sips, freely. Horse Radish vinegar. 1oz scraped fresh root to 1 pint cider vinegar. 1-2 teaspoons in water for catarrh, sinusitis, poor circulation or as a male tonic.
Steeping slices of the fresh root in cider produces a copious discharge of urine in dropsy.
Tablets, Blackmore’s Labs: Horse Radish powder 350mg; Dolomite 140mg; Gum Acacia 20mg; Magnesium stearate 10mg.
Diet: Mayonnaise: whip double cream until stiff and fold in fresh grated root, flaked almonds, lemon juice and seasoning, with a little Paprika.
Note: One of the five bitter herbs eaten by the Jews during the Passover Festival. ... horse radish
Topical. Creams to prevent burning: Vitamin E, Evening Primrose, Houseleek, Aloe Vera. Honey. Most creams contain Vitamin E which acts as a filter and moisturiser.
Diet. Foods rich in beta-carotene, Vitamins C and E.
Supplements. Vitamins A and E.
Note: Use of sunglasses and sun screens on sunny days to avoid burning. Wearing of a hat. ... ozone radiation
Radial keratotomy has been largely replaced by laser procedures, such as LASIK, which carry less risk of permanent damage to the eye.... keratotomy, radial
The operation is commonly part of the treatment of cancer of the tongue, tonsils, or other structures in the mouth and throat.... neck dissection, radical
With some forms of radiation, damage occurs when the radiation dose exceeds a certain limit, usually 1 sievert (Sv) (see radiation unit). This damage may include radiation dermatitis, cataracts, organ failure (which may occur many years later), or radiation sickness.
For other types of radiation damage, the risk that damage will occur increases with increasing doses of radiation. Cancer caused by radiation-induced mutation is the major example of this type of damage. Radioactive leaks from nuclear reactors can cause a rise in mutation rates, which may lead to an increase in cancers, such as leukaemias; to birth defects; and to hereditary diseases. Cancer usually develops years after exposure. Radiation damage can be controlled by limiting exposure. People exposed to radiation at work have their exposure closely monitored to ensure that it does not exceed safe limits. People of reproductive age or younger should have their reproductive organs shielded when having X-rays or radiotherapy.There is no evidence of radiation hazards with visual display units (VDUs).... radiation hazards
The gray is the unit of radiation that is actually absorbed by any tissue or substance as a result of exposure to radiation. 1 Gy is the absorption of 1 joule of energy (from gamma radiation or X-rays) per kilogram of irradiated matter. The gray supersedes an older unit called the rad (1 Gy = 100 rads).
Because some types of radiation affect biological organisms more than others, the sievert is used as a measure of the impact of an absorbed dose. It uses additional factors, such as the kind of radiation and its energy, to quantify the effects on the body of equivalent amounts of different types of absorbed energy. The sievert replaces an older unit, the rem (1 Sv=100 rems).... radiation unit
Radionuclide scanning is a safe procedure, requiring only minute doses of radiation that are excreted within hours. The radionuclides carry virtually no risk of toxicity or hypersensitivity.... radionuclide scanning
This random allocation means individuals are equally likely to be selected for the particular treatment being investigated or for the control group of the trial.... randomized controlled trials
Possible causes include arterial diseases, such as atherosclerosis; connective tissue diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis; and various drugs, such as beta-blocker drugs.
The disorder is an occupational disorder of people who use pneumatic drills, chain saws, or vibrating machinery; it is sometimes seen in typists, pianists, and others whose fingers suffer repeated trauma.
Treatment is the same as for Raynaud’s disease, along with treatment of the underlying disorder.... raynaud’s phenomenon
Rat-bite fever is a rare infection transmitted directly by a rat bite. There are 2 types of this infection, caused by different bacteria. The symptoms include inflammation at the site of the bite and in nearby lymph nodes and vessels, bouts of fever, a rash, and, in one type, painful joint inflammation. Treatment for both types is with antibiotic drugs.
Rabies virus can be transmitted by the bites of infected rats. Lassa fever, also a viral disease, may be contracted from the urine of rats in West Africa. Rats also carry the viral infection lymphocytic chorio-meningitis, as well as the bacterial infection tularaemia.... rats, diseases from
radiofrequency ablation (RFA) the selective destruction of abnormal conducting tissue in the heart by the targeted delivery of radiofrequency energy via a catheter under X-ray and electrocardiographic guidance. It is usually curative in patients with supraventricular re-entrant tachycardia and is the treatment of choice for this condition (see supraventricular tachycardia; Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome). It can be used for a variety of other arrhythmias with varying degrees of success. *Cryoablation is an alternative approach that uses freezing to destroy the abnormal tissue.... radioembolization
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: Madagascar clove-nutmeg, aromatic ravensare, Ravensara anisata, Agatophyllum aromaticum.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The genus Ravensara includes many species of evergreen trees or shrubs native to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands. These evergreen trees can grow up to 30 metres tall in rainforests, usually on all type of soils. The best-known species of this genus is R. aromatica used for its essential oil. It grows to a height of about 20 metres with several buttress roots at the base, with reddish bark, dark green shiny leaves and small yellow-green flowers. The fruit, a fleshy berry, are an important food source for birds. All parts of the tree are aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: R. aromatica is native to Madagascar and once thrived in the rainforests, but is now an endangered species due to de-forestation and over-exploitation. By the early part of this century, this species required protection as the production of the essential oil from the bark, used by the pharmaceutical industry, was particularly destructive as it required felling the trees. Only the leaves can now be used for oil production, to prevent cutting down the whole tree. There is now a conservation programme in place to protect these trees: it is therefore important to obtain the essential oil of the leaf from sustainable sources.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 30 species of Ravensara that grow in Madagascar. The common name of the genus Ravensara is actually a latinization of the Malagasy term ravintsara which means ‘good leaves’, a term originally used by the natives to describe another species of tree. European botanists in the nineteenth century made several attempts to classify the various indigenous aromatic trees of Madagascar, but due to the similarity of the two names ‘ravintsara’ and ‘ravensara’ they came to be used almost interchangeably. The botanical confusion between these two species has continued to cause a great deal of uncertainty as to their precise origins. In fact, the essential oils derived from these two species are very different aromatically as well as in their chemical composition. However, most of so-called ‘ravensara’ oil from Madagascar, is actually produced from the Cinnamomum camphora species (even if it is said to derive from R. aromatica) so great care needs to be taken in identifying the correct source of each oil. See also entry for Ravintsara.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Madagascar, this genus of trees is commonly called hazomanitra, meaning ‘tree that smells’, as the whole part of the plant is aromatic. Traditionally, the Malagasy people used the bark and stem as a tonic and as an antibacterial medicine. The leaves were also burnt in homes after a death to prevent the spread of disease while the anise-flavoured bark was used in the production of local rum. The oil from the Ravensara genus is referred to locally as ‘the oil that heals’ because it is used for so many different conditions. The essential oil from the bark, R. anisata (a synonym for R. aromatica) is known as ‘havozo’ and has a strong anise-like odour.
ACTIONS: Antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-infectious, antiseptic, antispasmodic, expectorant, immune-stimulant.
EXTRACTION: 1. Ravensara oil is steam distilled from the leaves of the plant. 2. The essential oil distilled from the bark is called havozo. 3. An essential oil is also extracted occasionally from the fleshy fruits or berries.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Ravensara oil (from the leaf) has a sweet, fresh, slightly lemony, licorice-like scent with an earthy undertone. 2. Havozo (from the bark) has a fresh, strong aniseed-like odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. The oil from the leaf contains relatively small amounts of methyl chavicol (estragole), myrcene, a-pinene and linalool with the main constituents being limonene (approx. 13–22 per cent) and sabinene (approx. 10–16 per cent) with very little 1,8-cineole (1.8–3.3 per cent). 2. Havozo (bark oil) has a high methyl chavicol content (up to 90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: 1. Ravensara (R. aromatica) is generally considered a safe oil (non-toxic and non-irritant) although it is best avoided during pregnancy. 2. Havozo oil is not recommended for use in aromatherapy due to its high methyl chavicol content, as it is a suspected carcinogen. Research has shown, nevertheless this oil has potent anti-microbial properties, being active against E. coli.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chickenpox, cold sores, herpes (all types), shingles.
Circulation muscles and joints: Aching limbs, arthritis, cramp, gout, muscle fatigue, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, colds, congestion, influenza, sinusitis, throat and lung infections, whooping cough.
Immune system: Viral infections especially herpes, hepatitis, chicken pox.
Nervous system: Anxiety, insomnia, nervous tension, stress.
OTHER USES: Ravensara species have been used for a long time to produce essential oils for the pharmaceuticals industry. In perfumery usage, it is employed as a middle note.... ravensara
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: Cinnamomum camphora ct. 1,8-cineole.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cinnamomum camphora is a tall evergreen tropical tree characteristic of the Laurel family that grows up to 20–30 metres tall. The foliage is bright green and the leaves have a glossy, waxy appearance bearing masses of small white flowers in spring. It produces clusters of shiny black berries and has a pale bark that is very rough and fissured vertically.
DISTRIBUTION: C. camphora is native to China, Japan, and Taiwan but has been introduced to many countries throughout the world including India, Australia and the USA, where in places such as Florida it is becoming increasingly invasive and a danger to the native flora. This species is not indigenous to Madagascar and was introduced onto the island during the middle of the nineteenth century. As the plant became accustomed to the Malagasy climate it became a distinct subspecies, which in time adapted so well to the new environment, naturalizing in the central-eastern regions, that it became a very sustainable species for producing an essential oil, now called ravintsara oil. However, since it is clear there are many different sub-varieties of C. camphora in various parts of the world, it is possible that there also existed another native aromatic tree already growing in Madagascar originally known as ravintsara by the local people. According to Georges M. Halpern in The Healing Trail: Essential Oils of Madagascar, an indigenous tree of this name had been part of the Malagasy culture for many centuries and its leaves were used as a traditional folk medicine.
OTHER SPECIES: The genus Cinnamomum has approximately 250 different species, many of which yield an essential oil on distillation. Amongst the most important are C. zeylanicum (cinnamon bark and leaf oils) and C. cassia (cassia oil). The single species C. camphora itself produces a wide range of essential oils including: camphor, ho wood and leaf oil, sassafras and ravintsara. All these essential oils, although derived from the same tropical tree or botanical species, differ in their chemical profile enormously depending on the country of origin as well as the part of the plant used to extract the oil: e.g. leaf or bark.
There are at least 6 different chemotypes of C. camphora essential oil due to this factor, including the camphor, linalool, 1,8-cineole, nerolidol, safrole and borneol types. For example, C. camphora, grown in Taiwan and Japan, is known as Ho oil, and has linalool as its major constituent, whereas in India and Sri Lanka the camphor type of C. camphora remains the most important. The variety of C. camphora cultivated in Madagascar contains high levels of 1,8-cineole and no camphor. In order to avoid any confusion, it has been suggested that Ravintsara should be labelled: ‘Cinnamomum camphora ct. 1,8-cineole.’
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The term Cinnamomum is derived from the Greek root kinnamon or kinnamomon meaning ‘sweet wood’. The word ravint means leaf and sara means ‘good for you’ according to the Malagasy tradition, as the local people have long appreciated the therapeutic value of its leaves which were used in folk medicine to treat digestive complaints, headaches, colds and chest infections. It has also been used for culinary applications and employed as a herbal tea. The Malagasy people themselves believe that the original Ravintsara tree is an indigenous species: a ‘cousin’ of the well-known C. camphora species, which has since been introduced.
ACTIONS: Antibacterial, anticatarrhal, antifungal, anti-infectious, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiviral, decongestant, cicatrisant (wound healer), expectorant, immune and neurotonic.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves of the plant.
CHARACTERISTICS: Fresh, woody, slightly floral, balsamic, eucalyptus-like scent. It blends well with eucalyptus, rosemary, bay, frankincense, cardamon, pine, cypress, juniper and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ravintsara is akin to Eucalyptus globulus oil (as both are particularly effective for respiratory infections) due to its high 1,8-cineole content ranging from 45–55 per cent. Other major constituents include monoterpenes (sabinene 15 per cent, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene), sesquiterpenes (beta-carophyllene), monoterpenic alcohols (alpha-terpineol 7 per cent and terpineol) and esters (terpenyl acetate).
NOTE: Ravintsara essential oil contain at least 45 per cent 1,8-cineole compared to approximately 5 per cent found in Ravensara aromatica oil.
SAFETY DATA: Ravintsara oil is generally very well tolerated by the majority of the population, although like eucalyptus, it can cause sensitization in some individuals and should be used in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Shingles, herpes, verrucas, warts and athletes foot.
Circulation muscles and joints: Aching muscles and joints.
Respiratory system: Coughs, colds, influenza and other respiratory ailments such as asthma, bronchitis, sinusitis, laryngitis, otitis, tonsillitis and whooping cough.
Immune system: Viral infections especially air-borne infections.
Nervous system: Nervous debility
OTHER USES: Ravintsara oil is produced in a ‘pharmaceutical grade’ for the chemical and perfumery industry.... ravintsara