Research: From 1 Different Sources
In medicine, the collation and assessment of existing facts and knowledge, and the critical systematic investigation of the normal and abnormal functioning of the body, along with the EPIDEMIOLOGY of diseases and disorders affecting it – the aim being to increase the sum of knowledge in respect of the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease.
Ethics of research Although Britain has had legislation governing aspects of research on animals since the 19th century, there is no over-arching statute regulating research on humans and human material. Such activity is covered in law by the vaguely de?ned common-law concept of consent, and by piecemeal legislation such as the DATA PROTECTION ACT 1998 and the HUMAN FERTILISATION & EMBRYOLOGY ACT 1990. Nevertheless, extensive and very detailed ethical guidance on aspects of research has been published by a wide range of national and international organisations (see ETHICS COMMITTEES). Several basic principles feature in all statements about research ethics: these include the importance of ensuring that research is independently and rigorously scrutinised by appropriately constituted ethics committees; verifying that any risk to the research subject is reasonable in relation to the anticipated bene?t; and ensuring that all e?orts are made to minimise possible harm. The research subject’s willingness to tolerate some risk does not relieve researchers of the responsibility of making sure that all risks are kept to a minimum. Above all, a key feature of ethical research has involved seeking informed consent from research participants. This rule, initially applied to actual involvement by human subjects in research, has gradually been extended to include seeking informed consent from patients or from their relatives to the use of data and to the use of human organs and tissue in research, including after POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION. (See also EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE.)
A statutory body in the United Kingdom that promotes the balanced development of medical and related biological research and aims to advance knowledge that will lead to improved health care. It employs its own research sta? in more than 40 research establishments. These include the National Institute for Medical Research, the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, and the Clinical Sciences Centre. Grants are provided so that individual scientists can do research which complements the research activities of hospitals and universities. There are several medical charities and foundations – for example, the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, the British Heart Foundation, the Nu?eld Laboratories and the Wellcome Trust which fund and foster medical research.... medical research council
Involves the use of non-numerical data, such as those collected in unstructured and in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation, participatory research, and the study of documents.... qualitative research
Involves the use of data in numerical quantities such as continuous measurements or counts.... quantitative research
A family of research methodologies which pursue action (or change) and research (or understanding) at the same time.... action research
When a woman is treated for infertility it is necessary to nurture human embryos for a few days (until the ?rst cell divisions of the fertilised egg have occurred) in a specialised laboratory. More eggs are fertilised than are usually needed because not all fertilisations are successful. Surplus embryos may be frozen for use in later attempts to implant an embryo in the womb. Research has been done on very early embryos but the practice is controversial and some countries have either forbidden it or imposed tight restrictions. In the UK such research is controlled by the government Human Fertilisation & Embryology Authority (see ASSISTED CONCEPTION).... embryo research
The collection of extensive narrative data on many variables over an extended period of time in a naturalistic setting in order to gain insights not possible using other types of research. For this type of research, observations are undertaken at particular points of time. Data would include observations, recordings and interpretations of what is seen.... ethnographic research
Research on all aspects of health, the factors affecting it, and ways of promoting, protecting and improving it. It is an essential part of national health development. It includes medical and biomedical research relating to a wide variety of medical matters and involving various life sciences, such as molecular biology and biophysics; clinical research, which is based on the observation and treatment of patients or volunteers; epidemiological research, which is concerned with the study and control of diseases and of situations that are suspected of being harmful to health; and socioeconomic and behavioural research, which investigates the social, economic, psychological and cultural determinants of health and disease with a view to promoting health and preventing disease. Often a multidisciplinary combination of the above kinds of research is needed to solve a health problem.... health research
The multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that studies how social factors, financing systems, organizational structures and processes, health technologies, and personal behaviours affect access to health care, the quality and cost of health care, and ultimately health and well-being. Its research domains are individuals, families, organizations, institutions, communities and populations.... health services research
Research dealing with the entire health system or only part of it, the object being to ensure that the system is optimally planned and organized and that programmes are carried out by the health system infrastructure efficiently and effectively and with appropriate technology.... health systems research
The study of the interrelationships between humans, the tools they use, and the environment in which they live and work.... human-factor research
Research on measures of changes in outcomes, that is, health status and satisfaction, resulting from specific interventions.... outcome research
A process in which the researcher facilitates analysis by a range of stakeholder groups of the themes being investigated.... participatory research
The process by which manuscripts submitted to a publisher or research applications are evaluated by experts in appropriate fields (usually anonymous to the authors) to ensure quality.... peer review (in research)
The procedures and methods, including ethical considerations, predetermined by an investigator, to be adhered to in conducting a research project.... research design
a *special health authority of the NHS established following the Health and Social Care Act 2012 to promote and protect the interests of patients in health research and to simplify the regulation of research. The Health Research Authority inherited the functions of the National Research Ethics Service, which closed in 2012.... health research authority
(PAR) a radical approach to public health issues that actively involves communities in collaboration, reflection, data collection, and activities that empower them to improve their own health. See empowerment.... participatory action research
Research misconduct is de?ned as behaviour by a researcher that falls short of good ethical and scienti?c standards – whether or not this be intentional. For example, the same data may be sent for publication to more than one medical journal, which might have the e?ect of their being counted twice in any META-ANALYSIS or systematic review; or the data may be ‘salami sliced’ to try to make the maximum number of publications, even though the data may overlap. Fraud in the context of research is de?ned as the generation of false data with the intent to deceive. It is much less frequent than carelessness, but its incidence is estimated as between
0.1 and 1 per cent. A ?gure of 1 per cent means that, in the United Kingdom at any one time, maybe 30 studies are being conducted, or their results published, which could contain false information. Examples include forged ethics-committee approval, patient signatures and diary cards; fabricated ?gures and results; invention of non-existent patient subjects; or sharing one electrocardiogram or blood sample amongst many subjects.
Research fraud should be ?rst suspected by a clinical-trial monitor who recognises that data are not genuine, or by a quality-assurance auditor who cannot reconcile data in clinical-trial report forms with original patient records. Unfortunately, it often comes to light by chance. There may be suspicious similarities between data ostensibly coming from more than one source, or visits may have been recorded when it was known that the clinic was shut. Statistical analysis of a likely irregularity will frequently con?rm such suspicion. The motivation for fraud is usually greed, but a desire to publish at all costs, to be the original author of a medical breakthrough, to bolster applications for research grants, or to strengthen a bid for more departmental resources are other recognised reasons for committing fraud.
In the USA, those proved to have committed fraud are debarred from receiving federal funds for research purposes or from undertaking government-funded therapeutic research. The four Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) have committees on research dishonesty that investigate all cases of suspected research misconduct. In the United Kingdom, an informal system operated by the pharmaceutical industry, using the disciplinary mechanism of the General Medical Council (GMC), has led to more than 16 doctors in the past ten years being disciplined for having committed research fraud. Editors of many of the world’s leading medical journals have united to form the Committee on Publishing Ethics, which advises doctors on proper practice and assists them in retracting or refusing to publish articles found or known to be false. (See ETHICS; ETHICS COMMITTEES.) Where an author does not o?er a satisfactory explanation, the matter is passed to his or her institution to investigate; where an editor or the committee is not satis?ed with the result they may pass the complaint to the appropriate regulatory body, such as the GMC in Britain.... research fraud and misconduct
see ethics committee.... research ethics committee
a type of scientific enquiry that focuses on developing practical application from the findings from basic scientific research. The field of translational research is sometimes described as comprising T1 research and T2 research. The former focuses on developing novel clinical treatments from laboratory-based basic science; the latter on embedding the findings of clinical trials into everyday practice. See also academic health science network.... translational research
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